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Arm cycle ergometer for spinal cord injury
The content of this document is OFFICIAL.
Please note:
The research and literature reviews collated by our TAB Research Team are not to be shared
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accurate & up-to-date snapshot of these matters
Research question: What is the efficacy of the use of arm ergometer to assist with
maximising and maintaining the strength and functions of arms for a person living with a
spinal cord injury (complete/incomplete)?
Date: 28/9/23
Requestor: s47F - personal privacy
Endorsed by: Katrin R
s47F - personal
Researcher: Aaron Hs47F - personal priva
Cleared by: Stephanie Ps47F - personal
privacy
ACE for SCI
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1. Contents
Arm cycle ergometer for spinal cord injury ................................................................................. 1
1.
Contents ....................................................................................................................... 2
2.
Summary ...................................................................................................................... 2
3.
Arm cycle ergometer ..................................................................................................... 2
4.
Cardiorespiratory fitness ............................................................................................... 3
5.
Arm strength and function ............................................................................................. 4
6.
Quality of life ................................................................................................................. 4
7.
References ................................................................................................................... 5
2. Summary
The arm cycle ergometer (ACE) is an aerobic exercise device suitable for people with limited
lower limb function.
There is moderate quality evidence that exercise programs using ACE can improve
cardiorespiratory fitness. There is low certainty evidence that ACE is effective for improving
upper limb muscle strength, upper limb function and quality of life. This is due to few studies
investigating these outcomes and low quality of existing studies.
The majority of studies reviewed report low quality evidence due to small and unrepresentative
samples, risk of bias and uncontrolled study designs.
3. Arm cycle ergometer
The arm cycle ergometer or arm crank ergometer is a pedal machine designed for upper limb
use. The device may also be called an arm bike, arm cycle or hand cycle, with context
differentiating between the stationary exercise machine and the mode of transportation. The
terms arm ergometer, upper body ergometer or upper limb trainer are also sometimes used
interchangeably with ACE (Picincu, 2020; Alison, 2015; Amanda, 2013), though these terms
are technically more general and can include rowing ergometers as well.
ACE is used as an alternative aerobic exercise device for people unable to use equipment
designed for the lower limbs. It can also be used as a device to measure cardiovascular fitness
in clinical or research contexts (Alison, 2015). ACE can also be found in mainstream gyms and
fitness centres (Amanda, 2013).
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4. Cardiorespiratory fitness
While there is notably varying quality of reviews, most studies find significant improvements in
cardiorespiratory fitness following ACE intervention. The most comprehensive systematic
review of the effectiveness of ACE for people with Spinal Cord Injury (SCI) found moderate
certainty evidence that ACE is effective in improving cardiorespiratory fitness (Chiou et al,
2022). This is in line with recent clinical trials which find low to moderate evidence in support of
the efficacy of ACE for improvement of cardiorespiratory fitness (Linde et al, 2023; Froehlich-
Grobe et al, 2022; Farkas et al, 2022). Previous systematic reviews find found lower quality but
still positive evidence in support of ACE for improvement of cardiorespiratory fitness (Eitivipart
et al, 2019; Gaspar et al, 2019).
Mate et al (2023) compared efficacy of ACE alone and together with FES-cycling to improve
cardiovascular fitness. They found maximum rate of oxygen absorption (V02) was higher for
ACE combined with FES-cycling compared with either ACE alone or FES-cycling alone, while
the effect size for ACE was slightly largely than for FES-cycling alone. This largely agrees with
earlier reviews, which found ACE combined with FES-cycling produced the largest effects
compared with either ACE or FES-cycling alone (Figoni et al, 2020; Eitivipart et al, 2019).
However, Figoni et al (2020) found larger effects for FES-cycling compared to ACE delivered.
Two recent systematic reviews have investigated use of ACE in the context of high intensity
interval training (HIIT). Both reviews present low-quality evidence that HIIT using ACE alone or
combined with functional electrical stimulation (FES) cycling is effective in improving
cardiorespiratory fitness (Da Silva et al, 2023; Dolbow et al,2022). Neither review compared
efficacy of ACE alone or together with FES-cycling.
With a couple of exceptions (Chiou et al, 2023; Froehlich-Grobe et al, 2022), most studies
investigating effects of ACE on cardiorespiratory fitness note the low quality of the evidence
(Da Silva et al, 2023; Mate et al, 2023; Dolbow et al,2022; Figoni et al, 2020; Eitivipart et al,
2019). This is mainly due to small and unrepresentative samples (e.g. overrepresentation of
males), few studies overall and lack of controlled trials. Heterogeneity is also a major reason
for lack of certainty around improvements in V02. Figoni et al (2020) list some of the factors:
the heterogeneity of exercise modes (arm-crank ergometry, wheelchair
ergometry/propulsion, handcycling), levels of SCI (C3-C8), completeness of SCI
(American Spinal Injury Association Impairment Scale, AIS AD), and training status
(trained and untrained) – all factors are known to be important determinants of V02peak
(p.692).
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5. Arm strength and function
There are fewer studies which focus on the impact of ACE on functional outcomes like arm
strength and function compared to those which investigate cardiorespiratory fitness. The
available literature is also more equivocal.
A review from Selph et al (2021) found one moderate quality randomised control trial (RCT)
showing no significant improvement in function after ACE, though several studies do show
some improvements in function and strength. It is also possible that cardiorespiratory fitness
correlates with functional independence in people with SCI (Maher et al, 2017) though this has
not yet been established in the literature on ACE exercise interventions.
The review from Chiou et al (2022) found very low certainty evidence that ACE exercise
programs can improve arm strength and function. They found that two studies showed
improvements in wheelchair propulsion distance, though with widely diverging effect sizes.
Other primary studies not included in the Chiou et al review also find some functional
improvement after ACE. A small 2014 study of 19 people with SCI found improvements in the
Functional Independence Measure (FIM) after ACE training (Dost et al, 2014). More recently,
Wil iams et al (2020) found some marginal improvements in sitting balance after ACE training.
Chiou et al (2022) also found a single small sample pilot study (Graham et al, 2019) to support
the efficacy of ACE in improving muscle strength. Graham et al showed that around 40
minutes per week of HIIT and 90 minutes of moderate intensity training using ACE is sufficient
to improve upper body strength. Eitivipart et al (2019) found evidence that muscle strength
may be improved from arm ergometry training alone at moderate to vigorous effort over 30 min
3 times per week. However, this is based on low quality evidence and a very low confidence
rating. The authors report conclusive evidence from 7 systematic reviews that ACE used in
combination with resistance training can improve upper limb muscle strength. However,
muscle strength is also improved with resistance training alone (Gaspar et al, 2019; Eitivipart
et al, 2019).
6. Quality of life
There is minimal and inconsistent evidence regarding the effect of ACE on quality of life for
people with SCI. Three of the systematic reviews included in this paper found evidence
relating to improvements in quality of life (Wilig et al, 2022; Chiou et al, 2022; Selph et al,
2021). Selph et al (2021) found one moderate quality RCT showing no significant improvement
in quality of life after ACE. More recently, Gee et al (2022) found no significant improvement in
quality of life after ACE intervention.
Wilig et al (2022) and Chiou et al (2022) found low quality evidence supporting a possible
improvement in quality of life after ACE. Both reviews support this with reference to a single
RCT, Nightingale et al (2018). In this study, the authors investigate the effects of a 6-week
program involving 45-minute moderate-intensity ACE sessions, 4 times per week. They find
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moderate to large effect sizes for improvement in health-related quality of life as measured by
the physical component of the Short Form 36 Health Survey.
7. References
Alison, T. (2015).
Arm ergometers provides alternative to conventional stress testing. Mayo
Clinic. https://www.mayoclinic.org/medical-professionals/cardiovascular-
diseases/news/arm-ergometer-alternative-to-conventional-stress-testing/mac-20429419
Amanda. (2013).
Arm Ergometers – What are they and how to use them. RehabTechnology
Australia. https://www.rehabtechnology.com.au/arm-ergometer-they-and-how-to-use-
them/
Bresnahan, J. J., Farkas, G. J., Clasey, J. L., Yates, J. W., & Gater, D. R. (2019). Arm crank
ergometry improves cardiovascular disease risk factors and community mobility
independent of body composition in high motor complete spinal cord injury.
The journal
of spinal cord medicine,
42(3), 272–280.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10790268.2017.1412562
Chiou, S. Y., Clarke, E., Lam, C., Harvey, T., & Nightingale, T. E. (2022). Effects of Arm-Crank
Exercise on Fitness and Health in Adults With Chronic Spinal Cord Injury: A Systematic
Review.
Frontiers in physiology, 13, 831372. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2022.831372
Da Silva, C. M. A. F. D., Sá, K. S. G. D., Gorla, J. I., Flores, L. J. F., & Coswig, V. S. (2023).
High-intensity interval training in people with spinal cord injury: a systematic review.
Revista Brasileira de Medicina do Esporte, 30, e2022_0193.
https://doi.org/10.1590/1517-8692202430012022_0193i
Dolbow, D. R., Davis, G. M., Welsch, M., & Gorgey, A. S. (2022). Benefits and interval training
in individuals with spinal cord injury: A thematic review.
The journal of spinal cord
medicine,
45(3), 327–338. https://doi.org/10.1080/10790268.2021.2002020
Dost, G., Dulgeroglu, D., Yildirim, A., & Ozgirgin, N. (2014). The effects of upper extremity
progressive resistance and endurance exercises in patients with spinal cord injury.
Journal of back and musculoskeletal rehabilitation,
27(4), 419–426.
https://doi.org/10.3233/BMR-140462
Eitivipart, A. C., de Oliveira, C. Q., Arora, M., Middleton, J., & Davis, G. M. (2019). Overview of
Systematic Reviews of Aerobic Fitness and Muscle Strength Training after Spinal Cord
Injury.
Journal of neurotrauma,
36(21), 2943–2963.
https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2018.6310
Figoni, S. F., Dolbow, D. R., Crawford, E. C., White, M. L., & Pattanaik, S. (2021). Does
aerobic exercise benefit persons with tetraplegia from spinal cord injury? A systematic
review.
The journal of spinal cord medicine,
44(5), 690–703.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10790268.2020.1722935
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Froehlich-Grobe, K., Lee, J., Ochoa, C., Lopez, A., Sarker, E., Driver, S., Shegog, R., & Lin, S.
J. (2022). Effectiveness and feasibility of the workout on wheels internet intervention
(WOWi ) for individuals with spinal cord injury: a randomized controlled trial.
Spinal
cord,
60(10), 862–874. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41393-022-00787-w
Gaspar, R., Padula, N., Freitas, T. B., de Oliveira, J. P., & Torriani-Pasin, C. (2017). Physical
Exercise for Individuals with Spinal Cord Injury: Systematic Review Based on the
International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health.
Journal of Sport
Rehabilitation,
28(5), 505-516. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsr.2017-0185
Gee, C. M., Sinden, A. R., Krassioukov, A. V., & Martin Ginis, K. A. (2022). The effects of
active upper-limb versus passive lower-limb exercise on quality of life among individuals
with motor-complete spinal cord injury.
Spinal cord,
60(9), 805–811.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41393-022-00796-9
Graham, K., Yarar-Fisher, C., Li, J., McCul y, K. M., Rimmer, J. H., Powel , D., Bickel, C. S., &
Fisher, G. (2019). Effects of High-Intensity Interval Training Versus Moderate-Intensity
Training on Cardiometabolic Health Markers in Individuals With Spinal Cord Injury: A
Pilot Study.
Topics in spinal cord injury rehabilitation,
25(3), 248–259.
https://doi.org/10.1310/sci19-00042
Linde, M. B., Webb, K. L., Veith, D. D., Morkeberg, O. H., Gil , M. L., Van Straaten, M. G.,
Laskowski, E. R., Joyner, M. J., Beck, L. A., Zhao, K. D., Wiggins, C. C., & Garlanger,
K. L. (2023). At-Home High-Intensity Interval Training for Individuals with Paraplegia
Following Spinal Cord Injury: A Pilot Study.
medRxiv : the preprint server for health
sciences, 2023.06.21.23291711. https://doi.org/10.1101/2023.06.21.23291711
Maher, J. L., McMil an, D. W., & Nash, M. S. (2017). Exercise and Health-Related Risks of
Physical Deconditioning After Spinal Cord Injury.
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Máté, S., Sinan-Fornusek, C., Dhopte, P., Singh, M. F., Hackett, D., & Fornusek, C. (2023).
Effects of Functional Electrical Stimulation Cycling Combined With Arm Cranking
Exercise on Cardiorespiratory Fitness in People With Central Nervous System
Disorders: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.
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rehabilitation, S0003-9993(23)00225-3. Advance online publication.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmr.2023.03.026
Nightingale, T. E., Rouse, P. C., Walhin, J. P., Thompson, D., & Bilzon, J. L. J. (2018). Home-
Based Exercise Enhances Health-Related Quality of Life in Persons With Spinal Cord
Injury: A Randomized Controlled Trial.
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Picincu, A. (2020).
Hand Bike Exercises. Livestrong.
https://www.livestrong.com/article/485080-hand-bike-exercises/
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Selph, S. S., Skel y, A. C., Wasson, N., Dettori, J. R., Brodt, E. D., Ensrud, E., El iot, D.,
Dissinger, K. M., Hart, E., Kantner, S., Graham, E., Junge, M., Dana, T., & McDonagh,
M. (2021).
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in Multiple Sclerosis, Cerebral Palsy, and Spinal Cord Injury. Agency for Healthcare
Research and Quality (US).
Wil iams, A. M. M., Chisholm, A. E., Lynn, A., Malik, R. N., Eginyan, G., & Lam, T. (2020). Arm
crank ergometer "spin" training improves seated balance and aerobic capacity in people
with spinal cord injury.
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361–369. https://doi.org/10.1111/sms.13580
Wil ig, R. M., Garcia, I., da Silva, N. S. L., Corredeira, R., & Carvalho, J. (2022). The
effectiveness of community-based upper body exercise programs in persons with
chronic paraplegia and manual wheelchair users: A systematic review.
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