Government
writing
handbook

© Commonwealth of Australia 2024
ISBN 978-1-7635508-4-1
This publication must be attributed as the Government writing handbook.
A catalogue record for this
book is available from the
National Library of Australia

link to page 5 link to page 7 link to page 8 link to page 9 link to page 10 link to page 11 link to page 13 link to page 15 link to page 18 link to page 19 link to page 20 link to page 22 link to page 24 link to page 26 link to page 28 link to page 29 link to page 31 link to page 33 link to page 35 link to page 38 link to page 40 link to page 42 link to page 45 link to page 47 link to page 49 link to page 53 link to page 55 link to page 58 link to page 62 link to page 65 link to page 67 link to page 69 Contents
Foreword by the Hon Patrick Gorman MP
v
Introduction
vii
Acknowledgements
viii
Note on terminology
ix
How to cite this publication
x
WRITE FOR YOUR READERS
1
Understand who you are writing for and why
3
Relate to your readers
5
It’s and its
8
Tell readers what they need to know
9
Punctuation and quotation marks
10
Tell the story and follow the flow
12
Paragraphs, structure and narratives that flow
14
Make the argument
16
Positive sentences
18
The mechanics of writing
19
Always use an Australian dictionary
21
WRITE SO YOUR MEANING IS CLEAR
23
Be clear by being grammatical
25
Word order
28
‘You and me’ or ‘you and I’?
30
Keep it simple: plain language
32
Active and passive voice
35
Sentence length
37
Use structure to make it readable: bullet lists
39
Parallel structure for lists
43
Headings
45
Make it accessible and inclusive
48
Numbers: choosing numerals or words
52
AFTERWORD
55
Review your writing effectively
57
INDEX
59
Government writing handbook
iii

iv
Government writing handbook

Foreword by the Hon Patrick Gorman MP
Clear and consistent writing is essential. It
helps Australia solve the policy challenges
of today and tomorrow. And it underpins
government content and services that
Australians can rely on.
The seventh edition of the Australian
Government Style Manual (Style Manual)
is for everyone who writes, edits or
approves Australian Government content.
It is the first digital edition.
The Style Manual was first published in
1966. The Australian Government had
installed just 34 computers by mid-1967.
Today, most public servants carry a computer in their pockets. It has never been
easier to publish and share words with the world. This demands us to take more
care over our writing than ever before.
Caring about every word, every sentence, is important. It is how the public
service delivers frank, honest and timely advice based on the best-available
evidence.
The Style Manual is not for the Australian Public Service alone. The manual is for
the Australian people – our audience – who rightly expect clear communication
about the policy and actions of the Australian Government.
That means thinking about our audience every single time we write.
Put simply, using the Style Manual helps you make an impact.
Happy writing.
The Hon Patrick Gorman MP
Assistant Minister for the Public Service
Government writing handbook
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vi
Government writing handbook

Introduction
Writing is an important part of working in the Australian Public Service (APS). It is
the most common way public servants communicate:
•  with executive government
•  within the APS
•  with the Australian public.
The Style Manual is for everyone who writes, edits or approves Australian
Government content. It helps us write clear, concise and consistent content that
is fit for purpose.
Our approach
The Government writing handbook is a companion to the Style Manual, but with
more focus on the craft of writing.
It is a selection of short-format Style Manual guidance with plenty of examples
and practical tips. We chose the style elements people use most often in
government writing.
How to use the handbook
There are 2 sections and an afterword:
•  Section 1: Write for your readers
•  Section 2: Write so your meaning is clear
•  Afterword: Review your writing effectively.
Each section has a central theme linking the articles within it. Editor’s tips follow
the articles. Some tips relate to the articles, while others are more general.
A list of related Style Manual pages follows most topics. We have included
definitions for unfamiliar and technical terms.
The afterword helps writers to review their work.
We hope this little handbook makes writing for government easier.
The Style Manual team (supervising editor, L Manthorpe)
Government writing handbook vii

Acknowledgements
We thank the following for their contribution to the handbook:
•  Susan Baird and Shannon Haintz, our wonderful Style Manual colleagues,
who made the handbook better
•  Jo Cantle and our colleagues in the APS Professions team for their practical
advice and moral support
•  Ali Tyler-Parker for her hard work on the first article
•  Bree Daniel and Jayne Abel, Engagement and Communications Branch, for
their professional advice and coordination
•  Leeann Cusack for her work on the launch
•  Sherrey Quinn, expert indexer, for her patience and flexibility
•  Susannah Bishop and Emily Thorpe who were, as ever, excellent sounding
boards on style
•  Rebecca Fletcher, copyeditor and Tina Campbell, proofreader
•  Dani Schlesier and Dr Subho Banerjee who made it possible for us to
complete the handbook in the time available
•  The Hon Patrick Gorman MP and Martina Ucnikova who continue to
champion use of the Style Manual.
Finally, special thanks to all those who use the Style Manual. Keep this handbook
nearby as you write; it’s for you.
Leanne and Cath
viii Government writing handbook

Note on terminology
The handbook’s focus is on writing and reading in government. This guided our
choice of terms.
We use the noun ‘writing’ more often than ‘content’ (the term prevalent in the
Style Manual). Writing is the words that are set down in a document, a draft or a
complete written work.
We use ‘content’ in a broader sense. Content is the range of government material
(including web content) that includes visual, auditory or interactive elements as
well as text.
‘Text’ is a group of words or a written work.
‘Document’ is writing software’s equivalent of paper. It is the thing people write in,
amend and send for approval.
We use ‘readers’ throughout the handbook. There are 2 exceptions. In
‘Understand who you are writing for and why’ and ‘Make it accessible and
inclusive’, we use the standard term for these topics – ‘users’.
We refer to the ‘APS’, the Australian Public Service, throughout the handbook.
This is for convenience. Please read APS to include public servants working for
state and territory governments.
Government writing handbook
ix

How to cite this publication
When you mention the handbook in your content, write the title in italics with an
initial capital.
Example: The Government writing handbook includes advice about writing good
paragraphs.
Always cite the handbook when you paraphrase it or quote it in your content. The
following examples show how to do this using our preferred referencing styles.
Author–date
A government source notes that active voice is ‘more direct than the passive
voice’ (APSC 2024). [In-text citation]
APSC (Australian Public Service Commission) (2024) Government writing
handbook, APSC, Canberra. [Full citation in reference list]
Documentary–note
The Australian Government Style Manual has a companion publication.1
[Reference marker]
1Australian Public Service Commission (APSC), Government writing handbook,
APSC, Canberra, 2024. [Footnote or endnote]
x
Government writing handbook

Section 1
Write for
your readers
1

2
Government writing handbook

WRITE FOR YOUR READERS
Understand who you are writing for
and why
It is vital to understand who needs your content and why they need it. This
applies whether you’re writing a ministerial brief, content for a digital service or
instructions in a print brochure.
If you don’t understand who you’re writing for, you risk writing something that
isn’t accessible or useful.
Know your obligations
The APS has a legal obligation to provide information that’s accessible. We must
understand our users’ diverse needs before we start writing.
Use inclusive language and follow accessibility guidelines (see ‘Make it
accessible and inclusive’). People bring different perspectives to their
interactions with government. It’s important to remove any barriers to access and
to make content welcoming to all.
Respect people’s time
Australians usually engage with government content to get something done.
Respect people’s time by producing content that is readable and usable.
The same applies when you write for the government and others in the APS. Ask
yourself: What do my users need to know? What are they trying to do?
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WRITE FOR YOUR READERS
Know your users
One of the best ways to understand users and meet their needs is through
user research. It shows whether people understand your content and how
they interact with it. Doing user research helps you write and design effective
products and services.
There are other ways to make your content relevant to user needs:
•  Use existing data.
−  Check if your agency has done research previously. Any insights will
help you better understand who you are writing for.
•  Encourage users to provide feedback, and monitor analytics data for
web-based content.
−  Feedback and analytics help you respond to user needs as they
evolve. Use the information to ensure your content remains current
and fit for purpose.
•  Ask questions and talk to colleagues who engage regularly with your
intended users.
−  This can uncover common problems, user queries and any
accessibility requirements.
•  Follow Style Manual guidance.
−  The manual helps you write content that people can understand.
Style Manual pages
‘Accessibility requirements’ appear on most Style Manual pages.
‘User research and content’
See also
Digital inclusion standard Criterion 1 (digital.gov.au)
Digital service standard Criteria 2, 3 and 6 (digital.gov.au)
4
Government writing handbook

WRITE FOR YOUR READERS
Relate to your readers
When you write, you create a relationship with your readers. The closely linked
concepts of ‘tone’ and ‘voice’ play a big role in shaping this relationship.
Tone describes the level of formality in your writing. It’s related to the words you
choose and how you structure sentences.
Voice is the persona or character underlying your writing.
The voice for a document with a formal tone, like a Cabinet brief, will be objective
and institutional. For a piece of writing with an informal tone, like a newsletter
article, the voice will be warm and friendly.
Tone
Set the formality of your tone to match the relationship you want with your
readers.
There are 3 levels of formality:
•  Formal creates a distance and sets the relationship as purely professional.
•  Standard creates a little distance, but the relationship is friendly – this is
the usual tone for writing in the APS.
•  Informal suggests a relationship that is personal and casual.
Formal
Legal writing, policies, reports and ministerial briefs are usually written in a
formal tone. It is professional, neutral and objective. Avoid contractions, personal
pronouns, idioms, metaphors, humour and slang.
Standard
This is the easiest tone for most people to understand and is a good choice for
a lot of government writing. It is used for emails and letters, online government
services, corporate communications, media releases and articles.
You can use contractions and some personal pronouns. But still avoid idioms,
metaphors, humour and slang.
Government writing handbook
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WRITE FOR YOUR READERS
Informal
An informal tone is best used for social media, blogs and some types of
newsletter articles. You can use:
•  contractions
•  personal pronouns
•  idioms and metaphors
•  humour
•  references to popular culture
•  personal anecdotes to replace case studies.
Be aware of your cultural assumptions when you write informally. Idioms,
metaphors and humour can make your writing engaging but risk excluding some
of your readers.
Voice
Basic government voice is a good place to start.
It is:
•  clear
•  direct
•  objective
•  impartial.
Use basic government voice as the basis for the many personas that can shape
your writing. Different voices are useful for different types of communication.
Communication
Voice
Instructions, guidance, explanations of
Supportive, friendly, positive,
policy, other external-facing content
empowering
Formal advice, research reports and
Expert, factual, balanced
statutory reports
Policy documents, explanations of
Reasonable, authoritative, measured
government decisions, general advice
and information
Emergency instructions relating to
Calm, authoritative, compliance-based
personal or national safety
6
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WRITE FOR YOUR READERS
Definitions
An idiom conveys a different meaning from its standard, or literal, meaning.
People can’t use the meaning of an idiom’s individual words to understand its
meaning. For example, ‘it’s a piece of cake’ means something that is done or
achieved easily.
A metaphor calls a thing by the name of something else. Or, it says that a thing
is something else. The description is imaginative, not literal. For example, in ‘I
knew he was a rat’, the ‘rat’ is someone who deserts or betrays their friends or
associates.
A simile uses the words ‘as’ or ‘like’ to describe a thing by comparing it to
something else. For example, ‘my life is like a rollercoaster’ compares my life to
features of a rollercoaster. Both are fast moving, exciting and have many highs
and lows.
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WRITE FOR YOUR READERS
Editor’s tip
It’s and its
‘It’s’ and ‘its’ are short words that are easy to use incorrectly. Here are 2 rules to
help you.
Rule 1: write ‘it’s’ when you mean ‘it is’
Example
She says it’s hard to concentrate when Mercury is in retrograde.
‘It’s’ is always a grammatical contraction of ‘it is’. A grammatical contraction is
when we bring 2 words together to make a shorter word by removing a letter
or 2. An apostrophe replaces the missing letters – ‘I’ll’ for ‘I will’ and so on.
While ‘it’s’ and ‘it is’ mean the same, writing ‘it is’ gives your writing a formal tone.
Rule 2: write ‘its’ for the possessive form of the pronoun ‘it’
Example
Put the rabbit back in its cage.
Pronouns stand in for nouns. Here, the pronoun ‘it’ stands in for the noun ‘rabbit’.
Because the ‘it’ (rabbit) possesses something (cage), we use the possessive form
‘its’.
If we enjoyed repetition, we’d write: ‘Put the rabbit back in the rabbit’s cage.’
Like ‘rabbit’s’, nouns use an apostrophe to show they possess what follows.
But pronouns like the possessive ‘its’ (e.g. my, our, yours, theirs) never have an
apostrophe.
Simple trick
If you don’t mean ‘it is’, write ‘its’.
Style Manual pages
‘Apostrophes’
‘Pronouns’
8
Government writing handbook

WRITE FOR YOUR READERS
Tell readers what they need to know
A lot of what we write in the APS asks someone to make a decision or do
something. Our readers are often very short of time. Don’t make them read a lot
of writing before they find out why they are reading it.
A good start is to ask 2 questions:
• What do I want my readers to think, feel or do?
• What information will make that as easy as possible?
The answers to these questions should be clear and at the beginning of your
document.
Within the workplace, phrases like ‘For action’, ‘For information’ and ‘For decision’
help readers understand what they need to do. In emails, summarise what you
need in the subject line.
For readers outside the APS, headings like ‘About this service’ or ‘Submitting your
claim’ direct them to the information they need.
Write what you know (just not all of it)
The information in everything we write must be accurate. But often we have
to write about something that is outside our expertise or that we don’t fully
understand.
Research is the answer. Find experts to ask, and use trustworthy sources. Check
back to make sure your information is correct. Do what you can in the time
available, then flag any uncertainties in the document you send for approval.
In other words, don’t make stuff up.
On the flip side, you often know far more about a topic than your reader needs
to know. Background information should directly help your readers. Resist the
temptation to tell them every interesting thing you know about a topic. When in
doubt, write less rather than more. If you can’t bear to remove the fascinating
details, move them to an attachment.
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WRITE FOR YOUR READERS
Editor’s tip
Punctuation and quotation marks
Do you put punctuation marks inside quotation marks or outside them?
It depends:
• whether the punctuation mark belongs to the quote
• where the quote appears in the sentence.
The punctuation mark goes inside the closing quotation mark when it belongs to
the quote.
Write this
‘Isn’t hickory a type of lettuce?’ Desi asked.
Not this
‘Isn’t hickory a type of lettuce’? Desi asked.
A phrase like ‘Desi asked’, ‘he said’ or ‘they replied’ is called the ‘attribution’.
When you quote a sentence that is followed by an attribution, replace the quote’s
full stop with a comma. If the quote finishes the sentence, keep its full stop inside
the closing quotation mark.
Write this
‘No, that’s chicory my dear,’ Fiona replied with admirable restraint.
Pete said, ‘Well, I like chickadees.’
Not this
‘No, that’s chicory my dear’, Fiona replied with admirable restraint.
Pete said, ‘Well, I like chickadees’.
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The punctuation mark goes outside the closing quotation mark when it belongs
to the sentence, not the quote.
Write this
Did you hear him say, ‘He’s a goner’?
Not this
Did you hear him say, ‘He’s a goner?’
When there are 2 punctuation marks – one for the quote and one for the
sentence – decide which is stronger and use it. Don’t use both.
Write this
The Speaker called, ‘Order!’
Not this
The Speaker called, ‘Order!’.
Style Manual pages
‘Accessibility of quotation marks’ (blog)
‘Quotation marks’
Government writing handbook 11

WRITE FOR YOUR READERS
Tell the story and follow the flow
As humans, we’ve been telling each other stories for so long that we tend to think
in them. We use stories to understand the world and share information. Stories
underpin all our narratives, whether they’re about dragons, people or government
policy. This means people respond strongly to certain characteristics of stories.
Stories make sense. Events have meaning and happen for a reason.
Stories have a beginning, a middle and an end. Events happen in a meaningful
order, usually chronological.
People focus on facts that support the narrative and ignore those that don’t.
Use these ideas to make your writing easier to read and more engaging.
Tell the story
To tell an effective story, you must understand its primary message – the point of
the story. Once you know that, you know the overall goal of your writing.
Work out what structure will lead your reader to the goal.
Here’s a good pattern to follow. Start your document with a brief summary of the
most important information. Then go on to explain the information in more detail.
The summary helps readers decide if they need to read the detail.
A common structure that works well for the detail is:
•  the beginning state or thing we want to change
•  one or more events needed to transform it
•  the end state where we have the desired outcome.
Follow the flow
Once you have your structure, stick to it. Make sure you tell the story in order and
that each paragraph flows into the next. If you forget to include something, go
back and put it where it belongs in the structure.
A good technique is to read your writing aloud or use the ‘read aloud’ function
in writing software. This usually shows whether you have a clear flow from
beginning to end or are jumping backwards and forwards.
12 Government writing handbook

WRITE FOR YOUR READERS
Definition
In its broadest sense, a narrative is a story that describes and connects a
series of things (such as people, events, experiences and concepts). The story
can be in any medium and engage any of our senses.
Style Manual pages
‘Hierarchical structure’
‘Inverted pyramid structure’
‘Narrative structure’
‘Sequential structure’
Government writing handbook 13

WRITE FOR YOUR READERS
Editor’s tip
Paragraphs, structure and narratives that flow
The first part of this tip (Write this) uses a good structure to explain effective
paragraphs.
The second part (Not this) uses the same words. However, there are no headings
or lists, and it has longer sentences in an illogical order. Paragraphs also appear
in the wrong order. The result is a choppy narrative that is hard to understand.
Write this
Paragraphs
Paragraphs are the basic structural units of our writing. This is because they:
•  order words into groups of ideas or discussion points
•  work together to tell a coherent story.
Readers find it easier to absorb information that is chunked together. And
well-written paragraphs create a logical flow of meaning in your narrative.
Start with a heading
A heading says, ‘all the paragraphs that follow are related to me by meaning’.
It gives readers an inkling of what the paragraphs are about.
Write paragraphs about one topic
Write short paragraphs containing one topic.
The 2 ways to start a paragraph are with a:
•  topic sentence that tells readers what the paragraph is about
•  transition sentence that smoothly connects the previous paragraph to
the new.
After the topic or transition sentence comes the body of the paragraph. It
contains sentences in a logical order. Each sentence must contain an idea
that develops the topic.
The paragraph’s concluding sentence usually does one of these things:
•  summarises the topic
•  leads into the next paragraph.
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Limit the number of sentences in a paragraph
The ideal number of sentences in a paragraph depends on what you are
writing. For example, paragraphs for:
•  media releases usually have 1 or 2 sentences
•  short-form content for mobile screens have 2 or 3 sentences
•  long-form content, like a report, have up to 6 sentences.
A paragraph can also be one sentence. But it should never be one long
sentence.
Not this
Paragraphs
Write paragraphs containing one topic. Well-written paragraphs create a
logical flow of meaning in your narrative. Readers find it easier to absorb
information that is chunked together. A paragraph can be one sentence; it
should never be one long sentence.
A heading says, ‘all the paragraphs that follow are related to me by meaning’.
Now readers have an inkling of what the paragraphs are about. The ideal
number of sentences in a paragraph depends on what you are writing – for
example, paragraphs for media releases have 1 or 2 sentences, in short-form
content for mobile screens, paragraphs have 2 or 3 sentences, and in
long-form content, like a report, they have up to 6 sentences.
Paragraphs are the basic structural units of our writing.
The editor intervenes
Let’s stop here: I don’t need more confusing paragraphs to make the point.
Apply structure to your text. Limit paragraphs to one topic and arrange sentences
and paragraphs in logical order. The narrative will flow and make your writing
easier to read.
Style Manual pages
‘Headings’
‘Lists’
‘Paragraphs’
‘Types of structure’ (section)
Government writing handbook 15

WRITE FOR YOUR READERS
Make the argument
Much of what we write in our work makes a case for doing something.
Within the APS, we ask for funding, people, time and authority. When we write for
people outside the APS, we want them to take action: get a health check, vote or
be alert to cybersecurity threats.
In both cases, we are making a persuasive argument for someone to do
something.
A good persuasive argument has 3 parts. Each part has a different role, so you
need all 3:
•  facts and logic – the verified evidence that your argument is true
•  emotional appeal – the human side of your argument
•  credibility – why you are a trusted source of information.
Facts and logic
Part of being a public servant is giving considered, evidence-based advice.
You must back your argument with quantitative or qualitative evidence. Be
clear about the relevance and importance of your evidence, as well as how you
collected it. Cite any sources you quote.
Emotional appeal
People are strongly influenced by stories about other people. Be sure to describe
the impact on people. Explain the impact in terms of the benefits to them, or the
human problem you want to solve.
Stories about people also have the most emotional power. This is why case
studies are so important.
Credibility
Demonstrate your credibility rather than stating you should be trusted. Make sure
your actions reflect your words. For example, if you’re trying to persuade people
to write in a particular way, demonstrate it in your writing.
Show that you understand and respect readers’ values (see ‘Understand who you
are writing for and why’).
Use active voice and first person (‘I’, ‘we’) to show you take responsibility for your
statements (see ‘Active and passive voice’, ‘Relate to your readers’).
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Definitions
An argument is a series of reasons and evidence put forward to:
• support a position
• convince others that the position has merit.
Quantitative evidence is found by counting and measuring. The typical output
is numbers and graphs.
Qualitative evidence is found by observing and describing. The typical output
is words and pictures.
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Editor’s tip
Positive sentences
Write in a positive, affirming way, unless research shows there’s a good reason
not to.
When you ask people to do something, they are more likely to respond to a
positive sentence. You will also use fewer words. Positive sentences are often
shorter than their negative counterparts.
Write this
Please enter your email address to receive updates.
Not this
We can’t send updates if you don’t enter your email address.
User research shows when it’s appropriate to use negative sentences. They
usually appear in rule-based writing as requests, instructions or commands –
known as ‘imperatives’.
Example
Don’t accept friend requests from strangers. [Agency’s research supports
using a negative imperative sentence]
Style Manual pages
‘Sentences’
‘The basics of plain language’ (blog)
‘Verbs’
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The mechanics of writing
Writing is a skill that gets better with practice. Like any skill, there are ways of
working that help you to improve faster.
Get started and keep going
A blank page waiting to be filled with words can be very scary. Equally scary is
running out of words halfway through writing something.
Editing text is usually easier than writing it. So, your first step is to come up with
words to edit. Here are 2 approaches.
Jump straight in:
•  Dump everything out of your brain and onto the page.
•  Group ideas and impose a structure on the initial chaos.
•  Ditch any clever ideas and favourite phrases that don’t fit into your
structure (this can hurt).
Write an outline:
•  Write down what needs to be in the document.
•  Use as few words as possible for each idea.
•  Shuffle the ideas around until they are in the right order.
Fact checks
Make sure you know where your facts come from. A quick search online is rarely
enough. Find a reputable source and look for robust evidence. If you can’t find it,
there are 2 options:
•  Don’t include the material.
•  Include the material and be clear about the limitations of its supporting
evidence.
Always cite the sources you quote. Reports and briefs usually include citations or
a list of references.
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WRITE FOR YOUR READERS
Sense checks
The narrative should make sense with your ideas in a logical order (see ‘Tell the
story and follow the flow’). There must be a clear chain of logic between your
facts and your conclusions.
After a while, you stop seeing what you’ve written. Instead, you start seeing what
you think you’ve written. This makes it hard to know if the writing will make sense
to your readers.
The best option is to get someone else to read your work. You can also check by
using the ‘read aloud’ function in writing software.
Managing versions
Your working document changes constantly as you draft, get feedback and
revise. Most modern file systems look after version control. This makes it easy to
go back to an earlier version of the document if you make a mistake.
Follow your agency’s version control rules. You might be required to create a new
version at every stage of the drafting process.
At the very least, it’s a good idea to save a separate file each time you reach a
major milestone. For example, you could save a new file before and after you
incorporate stakeholder feedback. This means you have a record of all comments
and changes before accepting or removing them.
Collaboration
Some things make collaboration easier, no matter what writing software you use.
Everyone writes differently, so agree on a tone and voice that all authors should
aim for (see ‘Relate to your readers’). This makes it much easier to edit the
complete document to a consistent style.
How you divide tasks depends on your team’s skills and knowledge. When there
is a lot of specialised knowledge, decide on the best expert to write each section.
If some team members are better at writing and some at editing, make use of
these strengths.
Style Manual pages
‘Referencing and attribution’ (section)
‘Reports’
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Editor’s tip
Always use an Australian dictionary
When you write for government, use Australian English and use it consistently.
This helps readers to focus on the message. It also builds their trust.
Your agency is likely to have a preferred dictionary. We recommend the:
• Australian concise Oxford dictionary (ACOD)
• Macquarie dictionary (Macquarie).
Dictionaries describe how people use words. They don’t prescribe rules for using
them. This means word entries often include more than one way to spell a word.
Our tip is to use the first word in the entry (the headword). The headword is the
most common form according to each dictionary’s research.
It’s okay to use another option when it’s your agency’s style. Just make sure
you always use that option (see ‘Create a word list’ in ‘Review your writing
effectively’).
Other reasons to use a dictionary
Dictionaries do more than give the meaning and spelling of words. They help you
style words correctly and consistently as you write.
Capitalisation
summer not Summer
URL not url
Zen not zen
Hyphenation
a blow-out (ACOD) or a blowout (Macquarie headword)
fact-check the article (verb) but a fact check (noun)
Plurals
cacti (headword) or cactuses
appendices (ACOD headword) or appendixes (Macquarie
headword)
1 word or 2
webpage not web page
Derogatory or
bogan: ‘usually derogatory’ (ACOD) or ‘mildly derogatory’
offensive use
(Macquarie)
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WRITE FOR YOUR READERS
Definition
A derogatory term is a word or phrase that is disrespectful and belittling.
Style Manual pages
‘Common misspellings and word confusion’
‘Dictionaries: an indispensable guide for writing and style’ (blog by
Dr Amanda Laugesen)
‘Spelling’
22 Government writing handbook

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Write so your
meaning is clear
23

24 Government writing handbook

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Be clear by being grammatical
Few people get excited at the thought of grammar. Often, it’s seen as a boring set
of rules that isn’t relevant to everyday life.
Despite this, grammar is a vital part of written and verbal communication. It
shapes how we use words. Most importantly, grammar determines how people
process and react to those words.
Grammar is about your readers
There are strong reasons for paying attention to grammar in your writing.
Good grammar respects your readers and their time. It shows them that you’ve
made an effort to write something they can understand quickly.
Poor grammar is jarring and likely to distract readers. This makes it harder for
them to focus on your meaning. There’s a risk some readers will disengage,
believing you lack credibility or aren’t interested in meeting their needs.
Many writers aren’t familiar with grammar rules – through no fault of their own.
The Style Manual covers the basics so you can avoid common pitfalls. Here are
2 areas of grammar with pitfalls that can be difficult to avoid in your writing. The
writing feels wrong, but it’s hard to say why.
Sentences
Sentences are the building blocks of writing. How you structure them has a big
effect on how easy your writing is to understand.
Typically, sentences contain a subject, a verb and an object. A complete
sentence can stand alone and retain its meaning – it has a central idea.
An incomplete sentence feels wrong to a reader and is a distracting irritant. For
example, ‘Before I go’, ‘Behind the tree’ and ‘Where you walk’ are not complete
sentences. They leave you looking for the rest of the idea.
Simple sentences contain one idea. Complex sentences have one idea and extra
information that contributes to that idea.
Long rambling sentences are easy to get lost in. By the time your reader gets to
the end, they’ve forgotten the beginning. Where possible, keep your sentences to
25 words or fewer. Shorter sentences lighten the reader’s cognitive load.
Government writing handbook 25

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Subject–verb agreement
In English, the form of a verb changes according to whether the subject is
singular or plural. This rule is called ‘subject–verb agreement’: the form of the
verb must agree with the form of the subject.
For example:
• The dog runs around the yard.
• The dogs run around the yard.
Native English speakers do this change automatically, but many other languages
don’t work like this.
The rule is less obvious when the subject of the sentence is a collective noun.
A collective noun is a word that describes a group of things as if they were
one thing. Examples include ‘team’, ‘crowd’ and ‘taskforce’. Collective nouns are
singular, so they are followed by the singular form of the verb.
This is easy to do for some collective nouns: The pack (of dogs) runs around the
yard. But it’s harder to do for others.
Tricky subjects
The nouns ‘staff’, ‘committee’ and ‘department’ are staples of APS writing and
they can be tricky.
‘Staff’, ‘committee’ and ‘department’ are nearly always collective nouns in
government writing. This means you will use a singular verb.
Write this
The staff was made up of more generalists than specialists.
The committee is meeting on Tuesday.
The department is responsible for aged care services.
Not this
The staff were made up of more generalists than specialists.
The committee are meeting on Tuesday.
The department are responsible for aged care services.
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But occasionally, ‘committee’ and ‘staff’ do use a plural verb. This happens when
the individual parts of these nouns (e.g. the people) operate independently. The
individual parts are implied in the sentence, rather than written.
It is rare for ‘department’ to use a plural verb. Treat it as a collective noun unless
you’re sure it isn’t.
Write this
The staff have shared various tasks for the project. [Individual staff are doing
different tasks.]
The committee are arriving separately. [Each individual member of the
committee will arrive using different means.]
The department work together to improve their governance arrangements.
[Individuals or teams within the department are working on their governance
arrangements.]
Not this
The staff has shared various tasks for the project.
The committee is arriving separately.
The department works together to improve their governance arrangements.
Definitions
In a typical sentence, the subject is the person or thing that does the action.
A verb describes an action, an event, a change or a state.
Objects can be ‘direct’ or ‘indirect’. Direct objects receive the action of a verb
and usually appear immediately after it: ‘She trains dogs.’ Indirect objects
usually follow a preposition: ‘She trains dogs for them.’
Prepositions include: ‘in’, ‘by’, ‘between’, ‘to’, ‘from’ and ‘for’.
Style Manual pages
‘Parts of sentences’
‘Sentences’
‘Transitive and intransitive verbs’ (blog)
‘Types of words’ (section)
Government writing handbook 27

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Editor’s tip
Word order
The order of words in a sentence is very important to its meaning. A standard
sentence uses the order readers expect: subject–verb–object.
It’s easy to misinform readers by getting the word order wrong. If you do get it
wrong, you should rewrite or punctuate to impose order and meaning.
Example
I have a meeting that John arranged in the seminar room.
Did John arrange my meeting while he was in the seminar room? Or is my
meeting in the seminar room?
Option: rewrite
Example
The meeting that John arranged for me is in the seminar room. [Rewritten to
change the word order]
The meaning is clear, but the emphasis has shifted. The original sentence
starts with ‘I’, which emphasises my having a meeting. The rewritten sentence
emphasises John having arranged the meeting. If the emphasis shift doesn’t suit,
then try another option.
Example
I have a meeting in the seminar room. John arranged it for me. [Split into 2
sentences]
We split the 2 ideas in the original sentence into 2 simple sentences and added
2 words. The sentences are easy to read and the meaning is clear. The order of
sentences emphasises who is having the meeting over who arranged it.
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Option: punctuate
Example
I have a meeting, which John arranged, in the seminar room.
We added a comma pair to mark out the supplementary information in the
sentence. The meaning is clear.
If we remove ‘which John arranged’, the sentence that remains is grammatically
correct: ‘I have a meeting in the seminar room’. This is how to work out if you can
use a comma pair.
Readers will probably untangle a sentence like our original example. But the
more complex a sentence is, the more they’ll have to work. Here’s a high-stakes
sentence.
Example
The group noted the minister is of concern to the government. [A concerning
minister, yikes]
The government is concerned about the group, noted the minister.
[A concerning group, phew]
The group, noted the minister, is of concern to the government. [Yeah, got it]
Style Manual pages
‘Commas’
‘Types of words’ (section)
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Editor’s tip
‘You and me’ or ‘you and I’?
Here’s a tip to help you use ‘you and me’ and ‘you and I’ correctly.
Simply take ‘you and’ out of the sentence. If the sentence still makes sense, then
you’ve used the correct phrase.
Correct
The director prefers the words drafted by you and me.
The director prefers the words drafted by me.
Incorrect
The director prefers the words drafted by you and I.
The director prefers the words drafted by I.
Correct
You and I attended the meeting.
I attended the meeting.
Incorrect
You and me attended the meeting.
Me attended the meeting.
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Use a similar approach when writing about yourself and someone or something
else.
Correct
People came a long way to meet the secretary and me.
People came a long way to meet me.
Incorrect
People came a long way to meet the secretary and I.
People came a long way to meet I.
Correct
The secretary and I got lots of questions from the audience.
I got lots of questions from the audience.
Incorrect
The secretary and me got lots of questions from the audience.
Me got lots of questions from the audience.
Style Manual page
‘Pronouns’
Government writing handbook 31

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Keep it simple: plain language
Using plain language benefits everyone. It builds trust, improves comprehension
and makes content accessible for more people.
Using plain language is not ‘dumbing down’ your writing – it’s opening it up. Using
plain language lessens the cognitive load for all readers. This includes people
with high literacy levels who are time-poor and have a lot to read.
Basic elements
The most important element of plain language is understanding your readers and
their needs (see ‘Understand who you are writing for and why’).
After identifying your readers, we suggest you start with 4 basic elements of
plain language:
•  structure
•  word choice
•  active voice
•  short sentences.
The Style Manual covers these elements in detail. We’ve focused this guidance
on word choice.
Word choice
When people read your writing, their focus should be on your message, not on
trying to decode it. Readers have to decode words before they can decode
sentences.
Two things to think about when choosing words are common usage and word
length. Most people find:
•  common words easier to read than uncommon words
•  shorter words easier to read than longer words.
More people will understand short everyday words and phrases. The right words,
used in context, can convey complex text in ways that are easy to understand.
Most long complicated words and phrases have simpler alternatives.
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Write this
So, the government could decide to keep a lot of the current procedures – if
the relevant Act allows it.
Not this
Accordingly, the government may wish to preserve many of the existing
procedural processes – in so much as is practicably feasible while still
adhering to criteria in provisions of the relevant Act.
Jargon
We all use jargon and technical terms as part of our daily work. But these terms
exclude everyone else. Even when readers share your terminology, they can be
confused by a term that has different meanings in different contexts.
Avoid jargon unless you’re sure readers understand it. If you can’t avoid technical
terms, make sure you explain them in plain language. Large technical documents
should include a glossary.
Example
The forum is looking at digital technologies powered by large language
models (LLMs).
LLMs are a type of language model. Language models are the mathematical
model of a language showing relationships between characters or words.
They underpin some generative AI (artificial intelligence) systems …
Be concise
Don’t use too many words, even if they are short and simple. It’s important to be
concise.
Imagine you open a document crammed with a poorly structured mass of words.
There’s a good chance you won’t read it.
This is because people equate the number of words with the effort it will take to
read and respond.
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WRITE SO YOUR MEANING IS CLEAR
Having too many words means readers might:
•  delay reading your content
•  skim and misinterpret your message
•  ignore it altogether.
Concise writing is a skill that takes practice. A good first step is to ask, ‘Do I need
all these words to make my meaning clear?’
Style Manual pages
‘Clear language and writing style’ (section)
‘Defining words: harder than it sounds’ (blog)
‘How people read’
‘Literacy and access’
‘Parts of sentences’
‘Plain language – the choice is clear’ (blog)
‘Structuring content’ (section)
‘The basics of plain language’ (blog)
‘ “Whole-of-government”, a whole can of worms …’ (blog)
Use the pages above as resources for the next 2 editor’s tips.
34 Government writing handbook

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Editor’s tip
Active and passive voice
Using active voice is a plain language principle. We recommend active voice for
government writing.
There are 2 voices in sentence construction:
• Active voice emphasises the person or thing doing the action.
• Passive voice emphasises the receiver of the action.
Example
The government adopted the committee’s recommendation. [Active voice]
The committee’s recommendation was adopted by the government. [Passive
voice]
The first example emphasises ‘the government’, which performs the action
‘adopted’. The second example emphasises ‘the committee’s recommendation’,
which receives the action.
Benefits
The active voice is more direct than the passive voice. This makes it easier for
readers to understand who is doing what.
The examples above also demonstrate 2 other benefits of using active voice.
Active sentences speak more to ‘you’ and are usually shorter.
Agentless passives
Readers often encounter a type of government writing called the ‘agentless
passive’.
Example
The reform was implemented.
Who implemented the reform? The sentence is missing the ‘agent’ that performs
the action. Frustrated readers must search for some context to work out who’s
responsible. Make sure you provide that context.
Government writing handbook 35

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Example
In 2019, the state government implemented the reform with the passage of its
legislation through parliament.
When to use passive voice
Sometimes, passive sentences have their place.
You might want to emphasise the receiver of the action.
Example
This week saw thousands of university students continue their protests.
On Tuesday, the student protests were endorsed by a Student Assembly
resolution.
Here, we want to focus on the students and their protest, not on the resolution.
Even the agentless passive is acceptable when:
•  no-one knows who is doing the action
•  who is doing the action is implied
•  we don’t need to know (or shouldn’t know) who is doing the action.
Example
Her car was stolen. [We don’t know the thief.]
The election was held. [The holder of elections is implied.]
His car was written off. [Bad car week – ‘written off’ tells us all we need to
know.]
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Editor’s tip
Sentence length
Plain language writing means using short sentences.
Short sentences are easier to:
•  read and understand because they limit the scope of an idea
•  scan because they have fewer words, phrases and clauses than long
sentences.
It’s easy to lose your message in a long sentence.
Rules for sentence length:
•  Keep sentences to an average of 15 words and no more than 25 words.
•  Break sentences over 25 words long into 2 sentences.
•  Start a sentence with ‘And’, ‘Or’ or ‘But’ to make a shorter sentence (it’s
allowed).
•  Move some of the words into a list if you can’t avoid a long sentence.
•  Include a mix of sentence lengths in your document – readers like variety
and rhythm.
Using shorter sentences also makes it easier to notice if you left out any
important information.
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In the following, ‘Not this’ appears before ‘Write this’ to show how we can change
wordy sentences into more readable text.
Not this
Because there are criminal elements using techniques they have developed
to try to exploit potential weaknesses in AI systems, organisations need to
update AI systems on an ongoing basis to meet evolving threats and risks. It’s
important for organisations to note that applying traditional IT best practices
to AI systems should also occur. [53 words]
Write this
Criminals try to exploit weaknesses in AI technology. This threat evolves as
often as the technology does.
Organisations should do 2 things to reduce risks to their AI systems:
• apply traditional IT methods that are best practice
• update AI systems continually. [41 words]
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Use structure to make it readable:
bullet lists
Structural elements are signposts for readers. Before they read your paragraphs,
people will scan headings, tables, lists, images and links.
A successful structure supports:
•  navigation
•  readability
•  understanding
•  assistive technologies.
Let’s focus on bullet lists. They are everywhere in government writing, and
mastering their style will set you free. Well, it will help you to be consistent at
least.
A list that is styled correctly is readable and conveys meaning concisely. But
don’t overdo it. Too many lists will make readers feel like they’ve run an obstacle
race.
Here are examples showing correct style for 3 types of bullet lists:
•  sentence lists
•  fragment lists
•  stand-alone lists.
Government writing handbook 39

WRITE SO YOUR MEANING IS CLEAR
Sentence lists
They are named ‘sentence lists’ because each list item is a complete sentence.
Each list item has an initial capital and a full stop.
Correct styles
Description
These hints will help your writing:
Sentence lead-in with a colon
•  Be clear about your primary
message.
•  Understand who you are writing
for.
•  Respect people’s time.
These hints will help your writing.
Sentence lead-in with a full stop
•  Research your topic.
•  Do a content outline.
•  Write an introduction and a
conclusion.
To write well:
Phrase lead-in with a colon
•  Use plain language.
•  Remove redundant words.
•  Check for omissions.
•  Listen to the rhythm of your
sentences.
Hints to help your writing
Heading with no punctuation
•  Be respectful and impartial.
•  Explain technical terms.
•  Cite the sources you quote.
You can use any type of sentence in a sentence list. The list items above are all
examples of positive ‘imperative’ sentences (see ‘Positive sentences’).
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Fragment lists
They are named ‘fragment lists’ because each list item is a sentence fragment.
The first word of each list item is in lower case, unless it’s a proper noun.
Only the final list item has a full stop.
Correct styles
Description
My cousin has a bucket list:
Sentence lead-in with a colon
•  swim with cuttlefish
First word of each list item is in lower
•  buy rocket boots
case
•  skydive over the Swiss Alps
•  run a marathon.
Visitors enjoy Ballarat’s natural
Sentence lead-in with a colon
attractions:
First word of each list item is a proper
•  Ballarat Botanical Gardens
noun
•  Lake Wendouree
•  Yarrowee River Trail.
Adelaide is famous for its:
Phrase lead-in with a colon
•  food and wine
The phrase lead-in and each fragment
•  festivals and sporting events
must make a sentence:
•  coastline and hills.
•  Adelaide is famous for its food
and wine.
•  Adelaide is famous for its
festivals and sporting events.
•  Adelaide is famous for its
coastline and hills.
Ensure each sentence is 25 words or
fewer
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Stand-alone lists
They are named ‘stand-alone lists’ because they can stand independently.
Brochures, display material and technical content often contain stand-alone lists.
Each list item has an initial capital and no full stop.
Correct styles
Description
Music Mag’s genres
Heading with no punctuation (no
Trance
lead-in)
House
List items are words or phrases (not
Techno
full sentences)
List items don’t need indent or bullet
Music Mag’s genres
Use indent or bullet if it helps people
•  Trance
scan
•  House
•  Techno
Style Manual pages
‘Lists’
‘Structuring content’ (section)
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Editor’s tip
Parallel structure for lists
Please check the examples in ‘Use structure to make it readable: bullet lists’.
The items in each list:
•  match the style of the lead-in
•  start with the same type of word (e.g. noun or verb)
•  have the same tense (e.g. past, present or future)
•  are the same type of sentence (e.g. question or statement).
This is called ‘parallel structure’ and it’s very important. It ensures that list items
flow logically from the lead-in. And it shows that each item in the list is the same
kind of thing. Parallel structure makes lists easier to read.
Correct
When Fred is fed up, he:
•  stays in bed
•  calls his friends
•  goes dancing.
Incorrect
When Fred is fed up:
•  he stayed in bed
•  he calls his friends
•  dancing might be the cure.
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Repetition
A parallel structure doesn’t mean using the same word to start each list item.
Example
I relax:
•  by bushwalking
•  by watching movies.
If you find yourself doing this, move the repeated word up to the lead-in.
Example
I relax by:
•  bushwalking
•  watching movies.
Final word
If you only have one item, you don’t need a list.
Style Manual pages
‘Lists’
‘Structuring content’ (section)
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Editor’s tip
Headings
Headings are signposts for people. They make content easy to scan. People
using assistive technologies can navigate documents and webpages using
headings. Search engines use headings to index webpages.
Keywords
Headings state the main point of the content that follows. But the first 2 or 3
words in a heading might be all that people read. It’s important to begin headings
with keywords that grab attention.
Heading styles
Always use styles in writing software to format headings; don’t bold and resize
‘normal’ text instead. Heading styles ensure a consistent visual difference
between each level of heading. Styles also allow assistive technologies and
search engines to identify headings.
Each heading level should differ visually. But use the same format for all headings
at the same level.
Rules for writing headings:
•  Keep them short – a maximum of 70 characters including spaces.
•  Use sentence case and minimal punctuation.
•  Avoid questions – they add to the reader’s cognitive load.
•  Ensure headings at the same level are parallel (see ‘Parallel structure for
lists’).
Write this
Write headings that are clear and short [Heading is a statement with 39
characters]
Not this
How can you avoid being confusing and long-winded when writing
headings? [Heading is a question with 72 characters]
Government writing handbook 45

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Heading hierarchy
The heading hierarchy is the arrangement of headings at different levels in logical
order. The hierarchy shows how important content is and how it’s connected.
Rules for the heading hierarchy:
•  Keep the H1 for the title of your document or webpage.
•  Use H2 for main headings and H3 and H4 as subheadings and
sub-subheadings.
•  Try not to go lower than H4.
•  Never skip heading levels in your document – for example, don’t follow H2
with H4.
Write this
H1: Dates and time
H2: Use numerals for times of day
H3: The 24-hour clock
H3: Coordinated Universal Time
Not this
H1: Dates and time
H2: Use numerals for times of day
H4: The 24-hour clock
H4: Explaining Coordinated Universal Time
[A jump from H2 to H4; H4s don’t have parallel structure]
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Definitions
Sentence case means using an initial capital for the first word and any proper
nouns. All other words in the heading are in lower case.
Proper nouns are the names of people, places, organisations or other things
that start with a capital letter.
Style Manual pages
‘Headings’
‘Structuring content’ (section)
Government writing handbook 47

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Make it accessible and inclusive
Accessibility is about writing and designing content for equal access.
Government agencies must produce accessible content.
Equal access to government services and information is an obligation under
Australian law (e.g. the Disability Discrimination Act 1992).
WCAG and user needs
WCAG (Web Content Accessibility Guidelines) is the baseline accessibility
standard for all Australian Government digital content.
We can describe WCAG in terms of user needs:
•  I need to find and understand the content.
•  I need to operate the navigation and interface.
•  My assistive technologies can interpret the content.
Understanding users and their needs is important for all government content (see
‘Understand who you are writing for and why’). Without this knowledge, we risk
creating content that alienates and excludes people.
Inclusive language
Everyone knows that words are powerful. We must use respectful language that
talks to the person, not their difference. It’s the law (e.g. the Racial Discrimination
Act 1975).
Inclusive language respects our diversity.
Choose your words carefully
Some words carry bias or unintended subtext. When you describe people, only
use the terms that are necessary to give context and meaning to your writing.
Subject matter experts from relevant communities developed our inclusive
language guidance. We based the following sentences on this guidance. ‘Not
this’ appears before ‘Write this’ to show how small word changes can make a
difference, and why it matters.
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Not this
Advertising should show old people as everyday Australians living diverse
lives.
The NGO assists youths who want to work in the industry.
Write this
Advertising should show older Australians as everyday people living diverse
lives.
The NGO assists young people who want to work in the industry.
‘Old people’ and ‘youths’ convey a stereotype of each age group. Stereotypes
are often negative and do not reflect diversity. They can have a harmful effect on
people’s wellbeing.
Not this
Everyone should visit the outback to see the landscape and hear the birdlife.
Write this
Everyone should visit the outback to experience the landscape and birdlife.
Not everyone can see and hear.
Not this
Tom, a mature-age student, spoke about using public transport.
Write this
Tom, a student, spoke about using public transport.
Tom’s mature age is relevant only if we’re comparing usage across age cohorts.
Government writing handbook 49

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Not this
In this report, we discuss people’s knowledge of the myths and legends of
First Australians.
Write this
In this report, we discuss people’s knowledge of the beliefs of First
Australians.
The beliefs of First Australians are not myths and legends.
Not this
Jonty wants to explore the concept of ‘family’ among ethnic groups.
Write this
Jonty wants to explore the concept of ‘family’ among people from different
cultural backgrounds.
Using ‘ethnic groups’ or ‘ethnic Australians’ implies that it’s unusual to be a
migrant, or have migrant heritage, in Australia.
Australians can choose to identify with ethnicity according to their sense of
difference. We shouldn’t do that for them.
Not this
Without regulation, he/she might not disclose their commission.
Write this
Without regulation, they might not disclose their commission.
Only use gendered terms when gender is important to the topic. Don’t use them
in general content (like our example) because they:
•  exclude people who don’t identify with them
•  prioritise a gender – why not ‘she/he’?
•  use more space than ‘they’ and ‘them’.
50 Government writing handbook

Please remember that language and its usage evolve, often quickly. Make sure
you have an up-to-date understanding of users’ needs.
Style Manual pages
‘Accessibility requirements’ appear on most Style Manual pages.
‘Accessible and inclusive content’ (section)
51

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Editor’s tip
Numbers: choosing numerals or words
The rules for numbers in general (not technical) content are:
•  Use words for ‘zero’ and ‘one’.
−  In some typefaces, it’s easy to confuse 0 and 1 with certain letters.
•  Use numerals for ‘2’ and above.
−  People find numerals easier to scan than words.
•  Use a comma in numbers from 1,000.
−  Screen readers will announce the numerals as a single number.
•  Use numerals for large numbers when it’s important to be precise.
•  Combine numerals and words for large, rounded numbers from a million.
−  It’s easier to understand 1 million than 1,000,000.
Example
zero one 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
100 … 4,020 … 60,250 … 905,600 … 3,326,805
1 million … 4.5 million … 12 million … 107 million
1 billion [109  1,000 million] … 1 trillion [1012  1,000 billion]
Exceptions
There are some exceptions to the rule of using numerals for ‘2’ and above.
Journalistic style
Government writing that follows journalistic conventions can use words for
numbers below 10. Media releases usually follow journalistic style.
Example
zero one two three four five six seven eight nine 10 11 12 …
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Words to start a sentence
Use words for a number that starts a sentence. You can choose to rewrite the
sentence if you want to use a numeral.
Example
Fifty-two people at the festival fainted in the heat.
At the festival, 52 people fainted in the heat.
When to use numerals for ‘0’ and ‘1’, not words
In some contexts, we write ‘zero’ and ‘one’ as numerals, not words. For
example, we use numerals for units of measurement (1.05 cm) and times of day
(00:45 AEDT). Here are 2 more instances that often appear in your everyday
writing.
Write ‘0’ and ‘1’:
• to compare numbers
• in a series of numbers.
Comparisons
Always compare numerals, not words and numerals.
Write this
Our survey shows that 1 in 5 people, and 1 in 7 young people, experienced a
mental health disorder.
Not this
Our survey shows that one in 5 people, and one in 7 young people,
experienced a mental health disorder.
Government writing handbook 53

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Series of numbers
Always use numerals for a group of related items.
Write this
Taufa’s numbers last week: 26 tackles, 3 tackle breaks, 1 offload and
0 missed tackles.
Not this
Taufa’s numbers last week: 26 tackles, 3 tackle breaks, one offload and
zero missed tackles.
Style Manual pages
‘Choosing numerals or words’
‘Numbers and measurements’ (section)
54 Government writing handbook

Afterword
55

56 Government writing handbook

AFTERWORD
Review your writing effectively
Footy teams review every aspect of a weekend game and ‘talk about it during the
week’. Writing is no different. Review what you’ve written and, ideally, get others
to check it too.
Understand your writing tics
With a little self-knowledge, a self-edit can start at the first draft. We all have
writing tics. They’re the style habits we pick up and use unconsciously when
writing. Granted, they can put the ‘you’ into writing and save it from being drearily
bland. But it’s also possible your tics will:
•  annoy and distract readers
•  make the writing repetitive
•  add redundant words
•  get in the way of your message.
Be brave and ask your colleagues if you have writing tics that drive them
nuts. The Style Manual team is aware of ours, and the list is long. We work on
controlling them, but it takes practice. We try to self-edit as we write.
Here’s a de-identified selection of 5 of our tics. It might help you to recognise
your own. We:
•  write staccato sentences
•  overuse idioms and metaphors
•  assume technical knowledge
•  write things in 3s
•  use phrases like ‘I think’ and ‘would you be able to’ rather than being direct.
Use spellcheck and readability tools wisely
Check that your spellcheck is set to Australian spelling (see ‘Always use an
Australian dictionary’).
In-app ‘Editor’ tools are useful, but some suggested edits differ from Australian
Government style. Check any suggestions against Style Manual guidance and
follow our style. Using one style across government helps build trust in our
content.
There are readability checkers available on the internet. We use one of these
tools to ensure our writing meets WCAG’s recommended reading age of lower
secondary.
Government writing handbook 57

AFTERWORD
But the readability formulas that are used by today’s tools were never intended to
be writers’ guides. The tools highlight areas where you can improve readability to
make your writing easier to understand. Good writing is much more than that.
Don’t edit and revise your writing simply to improve a readability score. Use the
tool’s editing suggestions to identify potential issues, then exercise judgement.
Create a word list
Word lists are alphabetical lists of preferred terms and spelling. They record your
decisions about what term to use and when. For example, our word list has these
entries:
B
body text (use for running text, paragraph text and general  text)
S
subheading (not sub-heading see also sub-subheading)
A word list saves time. You don’t need to keep checking the same word or making
the same decision. And you’ll use the same word consistently in your writing.
Create your own word list:
•  Add every word you check in the dictionary to the list.
•  Add acronyms and their long forms.
•  Include the meanings of words that trip you up (like ‘affect’ and ‘effect’).
•  Include terms your stakeholders use or prefer.
Have the word list open as you write, or open it when you review your work.
Readers benefit when you invest time in consistency.
Think before hitting send
Walk away from your writing and come back to it with fresh eyes. The genius
prose we wrote at 11 pm often fails to impress at 9 am the following day.
Always take a minute to reread your work before you hit send.
Style Manual pages
‘Common misspellings and word confusion’
‘Editing and proofreading’
‘On the level with readability’ (blog)
‘Shortened words and phrases’ (section)
‘Spelling’
58 Government writing handbook

Index
A
committee with singular or plural verb, 26–27
accessibility, 3, 4, 48–51
communication types and voices, 5–6
accuracy, 9, 16, 19
comparisons (words/numbers), 53
acronyms, abbreviations and contractions
concise writing, 9, 33–34
grammatical contractions, 8
short words and sentences, 25, 32, 37
use of contractions, 5, 6
consistency, 20, 58
word lists for writers, 58
content definition, ix, see also digital content
active voice, 16, 32, 35
contractions see acronyms, abbreviations and
agentless passives, 35–36
contractions
And at start of sentence, 37
corporate communications, tone and voice of,
apostrophes, 8
5–6
appendices/appendixes, 21
credibility in persuasive argument, 16
argument, 16–18
cultural awareness, 6
article writing, tone and voice of, 5–6
inclusive language, 48–51
attributions in sentences, 10
audience see readers’ requirements; user needs
D
APS (Australian Public Service), usage in this
definitions of terminology in this handbook, ix
handbook, ix
department with singular or plural verb, 26–27
Australian style and spelling, 21, 57, see also
derogatory or offensive words
writing styles
definition, 22
author–date referencing style, x
dictionary guidance, 21
authoritative information, 9, 16, 19
stereotypes, 49, 50
dictionaries, 21–22
B
digital content
basic government voice, 6
accessibility standard, 3, 4, 48, 57
blogs, tone of, 6, see also digital content
short-form content for mobile screens, 14
brevity see concise writing
tone and voice, 5–6
briefs
user feedback, 4
citations, 19
documentary–note referencing style, x
tone and voice, 5–6
document, definition, ix
bullet lists, 39–44
fragment lists, 41
E
parallel structure, 43–44
editing
sentence lists, 40
reviewing your own work, 12, 20, 57–58
stand-alone lists, 42
tools for, 57–58
types of, 39
emails, tone and voice of, 5–6
But at start of sentence, 37
emergency instructions, voice of, 6
emotional appeal in persuasive argument, 16
C
endnotes, x
Cabinet briefs, tone and voice of, 5, 6
equal access see inclusive language
capitalisation
evidence
dictionary guidance, 21
citations, x, 16, 19
in headings, 47
fact checks, 19
in lists, 40–42
quantitative and qualitative, 16, 17
case studies, 6, 16
see also research
checking your work, 12, 20, 57–58
exclamation marks and quotation marks, 11
citing, x, 16, 19
collaboration, 20
F
collective nouns, 26
facts and logic, 16, 19–20
commas
feedback on your writing, 4
comma pairs, 29
file and version management, 20
in numbers, 52
first person (I, we), 16, 28
in quotations, 10
footnotes, x
Government writing handbook 59

formal writing, 5, 6
lists see bullet lists
fragment lists, 41
logic in persuasive arguments, 16, 20
full stops and quotation marks, 10
M
G
main headings, 46
gendered terms, 50
making a case, 16–18
glossaries, 33
me
grammar, 25–31
you and me/you and I, 30–31
importance of, 25
measurement units, 53
parts of sentences, definitions, 27
mechanics of writing see writing mechanics
sentence structure, 25
media releases
subject–verb agreement, 26–27
journalistic style, 52
word order, 28–29
number of sentences in a paragraph, 15
see also nouns; pronouns; sentences
tone, 5
grammatical contractions, 8
words used for numbers, 52
metaphors, 5, 6, 7
H
ministerial briefs, tone and voice of, 5–6
headings
mobile screens, short-form content for, 14
capitalisation rules, 47
hierarchy, 46
N
in lists, 40, 42
narratives
keywords, 45
argument (making a case), 16–18
purpose of, 14
definition, 13
styles, 45
structure and flow, 12–15
headword in a dictionary, 21
negative sentences, 18
he/she, 50
neutral language, 5
humour, 5, 6
newsletter articles, tone and voice of, 5, 6
hyphenation, 21
nouns
collective, 26
I
proper nouns, 41, 47
I (pronoun)
subject–verb agreement, 26–27
first person, 16, 28
see also pronouns
you and me/you and I, 30–31
numbers, rules for, 52–54
idioms, 5, 6, 7
imperatives, 18, 40
O
inclusive language, 3, 48–51
object of a sentence, 27
informal writing, 5, 6
objectivity, 5
information sources, 9, 19
offensive words see derogatory or offensive
it is, it’s and its, 8
words
one (numeral or word), 52, 53
J
online documents see digital content
jargon, 33, see also slang
Or at start of sentence, 37
journalistic style, 52
outlines, 19
K
P
keywords in headings, 45
paragraphs, 14–15
parallel structure for lists, 43–44
L
passive voice, 16, 35–36
large numbers, 52
personal anecdotes, 6
lead-ins, in lists, 40–41
personal pronouns, 5, 6
legal obligations of APS writers, 3
he/she, they/them, 50
legal writing, tone and voice of, 5–6
I, 16, 28
length of paragraphs, 14
you and me/you and I, 30–31
length of sentences, 25, 32, 37–38
we, 16
letters, tone and voice of, 5–6
persuasive argument, 16–18
60 Government writing handbook

plain language, 32–38
reviewing your work, 12, 20, 57–58
active and passive voice, 35–36
rule-based writing (imperatives), 18
basic elements, 32
concise writing, 9, 33–34
S
sentence length, 37–38
self-editing, 20, 57–58
word choice, 32–33
sense checks, 20
plurals, 21
sentence case, 47
policy documents, tone and voice of, 5–6
sentence lists, 40
popular culture references, 6
sentences
positive sentences, 18, 40
attribution in, 10
possessive pronouns, 8
comparisons in (words/numbers), 53
preferred terms and spelling
length, 25, 32, 37–38
Australian usage and spelling, 21, 57
negative sentences, 18
word lists, 58
number of sentences in a paragraph, 14, 15
prepositions, 27
parts of, definitions, 27
pronouns
positive sentences, 18, 40
it is, it’s and its, 8
punctuation and quotation marks, 10–11
personal see personal pronouns
series of numbers, 54
possessive, 8
starting with a number, 53
proofreading see reviewing your work
starting with And, Or or But, 37
proper nouns
structure, 25
definition, 47
subject–verb agreement, 26–27
in headings, 47
topic and transition sentences, 13
in lists, 41
word order, 28–29
punctuation
series of numbers, 54
for clarity, 28–29
she/he, 50
comma pairs, 29
short-form content for mobile screens, 14
with quotation marks, 10–11
similes, 7
purpose
slang, 5, see also derogatory or offensive words;
of this handbook, vii
jargon
of writing, 3, 9, 16
social media, tone of, 6, see also digital content
Q
software see writing software
spellcheck, 57–58
quantitative and qualitative evidence, 16, 17
spelling
question marks and quotation marks, 10–11
Australian spelling, 21, 57
quotation marks and punctuation, 10–11
dictionary guidance, 21–22
preferred terms and spelling lists, 58
R
staff with singular or plural verb, 26–27
readability checkers, 57–58
stand-alone lists, 42
readers, usage in this handbook, ix
standard writing, 5
readers’ requirements, 3, 9, 48
stereotypes, 49, 50, see also derogatory or
writing for your reader, 3–4, 9
offensive words
see also accessibility; inclusive language; plain
stories see case studies; narratives
language
structure in plain language, 32
readers’ time, respect for, 3, 9, 25, 32
structure of lists see bullet lists
reference lists and citations, x, 16, 19
structure of narratives, 12–15
relevance see user needs
structure of sentences, 25
reports
style habits, 57–58
citations, 19
style sheets (word lists), 58
glossaries, 33
styles
tone and voice, 5–6
for headings, 45
research
referencing styles (citations), x
for accuracy and completeness, 9, 19
of words (dictionary guidance), 21–22
previous work, 4
of writing see writing styles
user research, 4, 18
subheadings and sub-subheadings, 46
see also evidence
subject of a sentence, 27
respectful language, 48–51
subject–verb agreement in sentences, 26–27
Government writing handbook 61

T
word meanings
technical documents
dictionary guidance, 21–22
explanations of terms (glossaries), 33
in this handbook, ix
units of measurement, 53
words
see also reports
Australian usage and spelling, 21, 57
terminology
derogatory or offensive words, 21, 22
dictionary guidance, 21–22
inclusive language, 48–51
explanation of (glossaries), 33
keywords in headings, 45
in this handbook, ix
number of words in sentences, 25, 37
text, definition, ix
for numbers, 52–53
they/them, 50
order of words in sentences, 28–29
titles
stereotypes, 49
heading style, 46
word choice in plain language, 32–33
italic font, x
writing
tone and voice, 5–6, 20
definition, ix
tools, 57–58
purpose, 3, 9, 16
topic sentences, 14
reviewing your writing, 12, 20, 57–58
transition sentences, 14
writing for your readers, 3–4, 9
trustworthiness of sources, 9, 16, 19
accessibility and inclusivity, 48–51
writing mechanics, 19–22
U
collaboration, 20
dictionary use, 21–22
units of measurement, 53
fact checks, 19
user needs
outlines, 19
digital content, 48
self-editing, 57–58
feedback and user research, 4
sense checks, 20
writing for your reader, 3–4, 9, 51
spellcheck, 57
see also accessibility; inclusive language
starting, 19
user research, 4, 18
version control, 20
users, usage in this handbook, ix
word lists, 58
V
writing software
editing tools, 57–58
verbs
heading styles, 45
definition, 27
‘read aloud’ function, 12, 20
subject–verb agreement, 26–27
writing styles
version control, 20
Australian style and spelling, 21, 57
voice and tone, 5–6, 20
journalistic, 52
voice in sentence construction
levels of formality, 5–6
active voice, 16, 32, 35
style habits, 57
agentless passives, 35–36
tone and voice, 5–6, 20
passive voice, 35, 36
writing tics, 57
W
writing tools, 57–58
WCAG (Web Content Accessibility Guidelines),
Y
48, 57, see also digital content
you and me/you and I, 30–31
we, 16
web-based content see digital content
Z
webpage, 21
zero, 52, 53
word lists, 58
62 Government writing handbook

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