FOI 24.25 0380 5.Research Expected abilities and challenges for children under 5.pdf

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Sleep/Bedtime .................................................................................................................................... 5
Toddlers 1 – 3 years ................................................................................................................................ 6
Toileting .............................................................................................................................................. 6
Feeding ................................................................................................................................................ 6
Eating .................................................................................................................................................. 6
Dressing ............................................................................................................................................... 6
Behaviours .......................................................................................................................................... 7
Sleep/Bedtime .................................................................................................................................... 8
Pre‐schoolers 3 – 5 years ........................................................................................................................ 9
Toileting .............................................................................................................................................. 9
Feeding ................................................................................................................................................ 9
Eating .................................................................................................................................................. 9
Dressing ............................................................................................................................................... 9
Behaviours (continuation from 1‐3 year old) ..................................................................................... 9
Sleep/Bedtime .................................................................................................................................. 10
Parenting and stress ............................................................................................................................. 11
Where can parents get help? ................................................................................................................ 11
Financial and other impact of disabilities on family ............................................................................. 12
Multiple children (i.e. demand on parents time).................................................................................. 12
Parental Exhaustion .............................................................................................................................. 11
The impact of multiple and complex needs on a family ....................................................................... 12
Double Prams ........................................................................................................................................ 14
Overview ........................................................................................................................................... 14
Ease of purchase access and pricing ................................................................................................. 14
Availability of quality information ......................................................................................................... 15
Standards and Regulations ............................................................................................................... 16
Reference List ........................................................................................................................................ 17

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Summary
The information collated below details the typical development stages and behaviours for children
up to age five. It also examines expected challenges that children and their families may experience
during this 0‐5 development phase.
The Raising Children website defines development as: the changes in a child’s physical growth, as
well as their ability to learn the social, emotional, behaviour, thinking and communication
skills they need for life. All of these areas are linked, and each depends on and influences the
others1.
The majority of information below is taken from the raisingchildren.net.au website, which provides
free, reliable, up‐to‐date and independent information to help Australians families. It is funded by
the Australian Government, reviewed by experts and is non‐commercial, so it can be considered a
reliable source. Health information is also taken from healthdirect.gov.au, which is an Australian
government funded service, providing quality, approved health information and advice.
These websites both highlight that all babies, toddlers and children grow and develop at different
rates. The Raising Children website identifies the following key points about child development for
ages 0‐5 years:
  Development is how the child grows physically and emotionally and learns to communicate,
think and socialise.
  In the first five years of life, the child’s brain develops more and faster than at any other
time in his life.
  The parent relationship with the child is one of the most important influences on the child’s
learning and development.
  In the early years, the child’s main way of learning and developing is through play2.
For each age bracket, development milestones for toileting, feeding, eating, dressing, behaviours
and sleep/bedtime have been listed.

Babies 3 – 12 months
Toileting
Young babies can wee many times a day. Having lots of wet nappies is a good sign – it shows that a
child is well hydrated. The wetting will happen less as the baby gets older, but it might still happen at
least 6‐8 times a day. Pooing anywhere between three times a day and three times a week is normal.
Generally, a child will need up to 12 nappies changed a day for a newborn and 6‐8 a day for a
toddler3.
Feeding
It is recommended that a mother breastfeed exclusively until the baby starts solid foods at around 6
months and keeps breastfeeding until at least 12 months. A baby needs only small amounts of food
for the first few months of solids, and breastmilk is still a baby’s main source of nutrition. Once a

1 https://raisingchildren.net.au/newborns/development/understanding‐development/development‐first‐five‐years.
2 Ibid.
3 https://raisingchildren.net.au/newborns/health‐daily‐care/poos‐wees‐nappies/nappies
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parent introduces solids, it’s best for the baby if breastfeeding continues along with giving the baby
solids until they are at least 12 months old4.
In the early days, babies typically need to feed every 2‐4 hours. Most babies establish a manageable
pattern of demand feeding over the first few weeks of life. They learn to do most of their feeds
during the day and have fewer at night5.
Eating
Many children are fussy eaters. Fussy eating is normal, but it can be hard to handle. Most of the time
fussy eating isn’t about food – it’s often about children wanting to be independent. Children’s
appetites are affected by their growth cycles. Even babies have changing appetites.
At 1‐6 years, it’s common for children to be really hungry one day and picky the next6.
Dressing
Once a child reaches about 12 months old, they will be very energetic and might not want to stay
still long enough even to put a nappy on, let alone several layers of clothes7.
At one year children can usually:
  hold their arms out for sleeves and put their feet up for shoes
  push their arms through sleeves and legs through pants
  pull socks and shoes off8.
Behaviours
The Raising Children Website identifies the following common behaviour concerns for babies 3‐12
months:
  Fear of strangers
o  Fear of strangers is normal and common. It can start at around eight months and
usually passes by around two years9.
  Separation anxiety
o  Separation anxiety is a normal part of development from about eight months of
age10.
  Breath holding
o  Children might hold their breath when they’re upset or hurt. They don’t do it on
purpose. Breath‐holding spells usually end within 30‐60 seconds11.
  Fear of bath
o  Newborns might not like the feeling of being in the bath. Older babies and toddlers
might be frightened of the bath12.

4 https://raisingchildren.net.au/babies/breastfeeding‐bottle‐feeding‐solids/about‐breastfeeding/breastmilk‐breastfeeding‐
benefits
5 https://raisingchildren.net.au/babies/behaviour/common‐concerns/can‐you‐spoil‐a‐baby
6 https://raisingchildren.net.au/toddlers/nutrition‐fitness/common‐concerns/fussy‐eating
7 https://raisingchildren.net.au/babies/health‐daily‐care/dressing‐babies/dressing‐baby
8 https://raisingchildren.net.au/toddlers/development/understanding‐development/development‐first‐five‐years
9 https://raisingchildren.net.au/babies/behaviour/common‐concerns/fear‐of‐strangers
10 https://raisingchildren.net.au/babies/behaviour/common‐concerns/separation‐anxiety
11 https://raisingchildren.net.au/babies/behaviour/common‐concerns/breath‐holding
12 https://raisingchildren.net.au/babies/behaviour/common‐concerns/fear‐of‐the‐bath
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  Biting, pinching and hair pulling
o  Babies bite, pinch and pull hair to work out cause and effect. Toddlers often do it to
express feelings they don’t have words for.13
o  Babies and toddlers might also pinch, bite or pull hair if they:
  feel overwhelmed by too much noise, light or activity
  need opportunities for more active play
  feel overtired or hungry.
  Shyness
o  Some children are naturally shy. This means they’re slow to warm up or
uncomfortable in social situations14.
  Overstimulation
o  A stimulating environment to play in and explore helps a child to learn and grow. But
sometimes too many activities add up to overstimulation, so downtime is important.
o  If a newborn or baby is overstimulated, they might:
  be cranky or tired
  cry more
  seem upset or turn her head away from you
  move in a jerky way
  clench her fists, wave her arms or kick.15
At 6‐12 months, a baby starts to understand cause and effect and begins to have some control over
their behaviour. This is a good time to start setting gentle limits to form the basis of teaching a child
positive behaviour in the future16.
Sleep/Bedtime
Most babies under six months of age still need feeding and help to settle in the night.
6‐12 months:
  As babies get older, they need less sleep.
  From about six months, most babies have their longest sleeps at night.
  Most babies are ready for bed between 6 pm and 8 pm. They usually take less than 30
minutes to get to sleep, but about 1 in 10 babies takes longer.
  At this age, most babies are still having 1‐2 daytime naps. These naps usually last 1‐2 hours.
Some babies sleep longer, but up to a quarter of babies nap for less than an hour17.
  Most parents of babies under six months of age are still getting up in the night to feed and
settle their babies. For many this keeps going after six months.

13 https://raisingchildren.net.au/babies/behaviour/common‐concerns/biting‐pinching‐hair‐pulling
14 https://raisingchildren.net.au/babies/behaviour/common‐concerns/shyness
15 https://raisingchildren.net.au/babies/behaviour/common‐concerns/overstimulation
16 https://raisingchildren.net.au/babies/behaviour/understanding‐behaviour/baby‐behaviour‐awareness
17 https://raisingchildren.net.au/babies/sleep/understanding‐sleep/sleep‐2‐12‐months
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  Some parents find that this is OK as long as they have enough support and they can catch up
on sleep at other times. For others, getting up in the night over the long term has a serious
effect on them and their family life.
  There’s a strong link between baby sleep problems and symptoms of postnatal depression in
women and also postnatal depression in men. But the link isn’t there if parents of babies
with sleep problems are getting enough sleep themselves18.

Toddlers 1 – 3 years
Toileting
A child might display signs that they are ready for toilet training from about two years on. Some
children show signs of being ready as early as 18 months, and some might be older than two years.
The child will require assistance with timing, hygiene e.g. wiping, encouragement, reminding and
dressing associated with toileting until they are able to self‐manage.
Feeding
Weaning off breastfeeding is suitable for 1‐4 years and it entirely dependent on the mother and
child’s preferences19.
Eating
For this age it is the parent’s responsibility to monitor eating habits and encourage healthy eating.
Children’s appetites are affected by their growth cycles. Even babies have changing appetites. At 1‐6
years, it’s common for children to be really hungry one day and picky the next20.
Messy eating is normal when children are learning to feed themselves. It’s natural for them to start
by using their hands and fingers and then move on to cutlery, cups and plates. Over time, their
muscles and coordination improve, and mealtimes become less messy21.
Dressing
At two years children can usually:
  take off unfastened coats
  take off shoes when the laces are untied
  help push down pants
  find armholes in t‐shirts.
At 2½ years children can usually:
  pull down pants with elastic waists
  try to put on socks
  put on front‐buttoned shirts, without doing up buttons
  unbutton large buttons.
At three years children can usually:

18 https://raisingchildren.net.au/babies/sleep/understanding‐sleep/sleep‐2‐12‐months
19 https://raisingchildren.net.au/toddlers/nutrition‐fitness/common‐concerns/weaning‐older‐children
20 https://raisingchildren.net.au/toddlers/nutrition‐fitness/common‐concerns/fussy‐eating
21 https://raisingchildren.net.au/toddlers/nutrition‐fitness/common‐concerns/messy‐eating
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  put on t‐shirts with little help
  put on shoes without fastening – they might put them on the wrong feet
  put on socks – they might have trouble getting their heels in the right place
  pull down pants by themselves
  zip and unzip without joining or separating zippers
  take off t‐shirts without help
  button large front buttons22.
Behaviours
Tantrums
  Tantrums are very common in children aged 1‐3 years. This is because children’s social and
emotional skills are only just starting to develop at this age. Children often don’t have the
words to express big emotions. They might be testing out their growing independence.
  So tantrums are one of the ways that young children express and manage feelings, and try to
understand or change what’s going on around them. Older children can have tantrums too.
This can be because they haven’t yet learned more appropriate ways to express or manage
feelings.
  For both toddlers and older children, there are things that can make tantrums more likely to
happen:
o  Temperament – this influences how quickly and strongly children react to things like
frustrating events. Children who get upset easily might be more likely to have
tantrums.
o  Stress, hunger, tiredness and overstimulation – these can make it harder for children
to express and manage feelings and behaviour.
o  Situations that children just can’t cope with – for example, a toddler might have
trouble coping if an older child takes a toy away.
o  Strong emotions – worry, fear, shame and anger can be overwhelming for children23.
Self‐regulation
  Self‐regulation is the ability to understand and manage behaviour and reactions. Children
start developing it from around 12 months. As a child gets older, they will be more able to
regulate their reactions and calm down when something upsetting happens, resulting in
fewer tantrums.
  Toddlers can wait short times for food and toys. But toddlers might still snatch toys from
other children if it’s something they really want. And tantrums happen when toddlers
struggle with regulating strong emotions24.
Biting, pinching and hair pulling
  Toddlers might bite, pinch or pull hair because they’re excited, angry, upset or hurt.
Sometimes they behave this way because they don’t have words to express these feelings.

22 https://raisingchildren.net.au/toddlers/development/understanding‐development/development‐first‐five‐years
23 https://raisingchildren.net.au/toddlers/behaviour/crying‐tantrums/tantrums
24 https://raisingchildren.net.au/preschoolers/behaviour/understanding‐behaviour/self‐regulation
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  Some toddlers might bite, pinch or pull hair because they’ve seen other children do it, or
other children have done it to them25
Fear of bath
  Older babies and toddlers might be afraid of the noise of the water draining or of slipping
under the water. They might not like having their hair washed or getting water or soap in
their eyes26.
Over stimulation
  If a toddler or pre‐schooler is overstimulated, they might:
o  seem tired, cranky and upset
o  cry and not be able to use words to describe feelings
o  throw themselves on the floor in tears or anger
o  tell you that they do not want to do a particular activity anymore
o  refuse to do simple things like putting on a seatbelt.
Lies
  Children can learn to tell lies from an early age, usually around three years of age27.
Swearing
  Young children often swear because they’re exploring language. They might be testing a new
word, perhaps to understand its meaning28.
Pestering
  Pestering is also common behaviour for 2 – 8 year olds and can sometimes lead to
tantrums29. There are effective parenting techniques to reduce pestering behaviours.
Sleep/Bedtime
  Toddlers need about 12‐13 hours of sleep every 24 hours. That’s usually 10‐12 hours at night
and 1‐2 hours during the day.
  Common toddler sleep problems include having trouble settling to sleep and not wanting to
stay in bed at bedtime. Other common toddler sleep problems are night terrors, teeth
grinding and calling out after bed time30.
  Less than 5% of two‐year‐olds wake three or more times overnight31.

25 https://raisingchildren.net.au/babies/behaviour/common‐concerns/biting‐pinching‐hair‐pulling
26 https://raisingchildren.net.au/babies/behaviour/common‐concerns/fear‐of‐the‐bath
27 https://raisingchildren.net.au/toddlers/behaviour/common‐concerns/lies
28 https://raisingchildren.net.au/toddlers/behaviour/common‐concerns/swearing‐toddlers‐preschoolers
29 https://raisingchildren.net.au/toddlers/behaviour/common‐concerns/pester‐power
30 https://raisingchildren.net.au/toddlers/sleep/understanding‐sleep/toddler‐sleep
31 https://raisingchildren.net.au/school‐age/sleep/understanding‐sleep/about‐sleep
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Pre-schoolers 3 – 5 years
Toileting
Often, children are 3‐4 years old before they’re dry at night. One in 5 five‐year‐olds and one in 10
six‐year‐olds still uses nappies overnight. And bedwetting is very common in school‐age children32.
Faecal incontinence ‐ All children achieve bowel control at their own rate. Faecal incontinence isn’t
generally considered a medical condition unless a child is at least four years old.
Pre‐school age children need to be taught about personal hygiene for washing, drying and toileting.
Feeding
The Raising Children website states that it is up to the parent how long a mother continues to
breastfeed. If a mother decides to breastfeed for longer, the baby will get added benefits like
protection against infections in the toddler years33.
Eating
The Raising Children website provides information about healthy nutrition and fitness choices for
children and teaching health habits. Children of this age are able to decide if they are hungry and
what they would like to eat, but still require parent’s to provide health options and monitor
undereating or overeating34.
Dressing
At four years children can usually:
  take off t‐shirts by themselves
  buckle shoes or belts
  connect jacket zippers and zip them up
  put on socks the right way
  put on shoes with little help
  know the front and back of clothing.
At 4½ years children can usually:
  step into pants and pull them up
  thread belts through buckles.
At five years children can usually:
  dress without help or supervision
  put on t‐shirts or jumpers the right way each time
  Tying up shoelaces is a skill that most five‐year‐olds are still learning35.
Behaviours (continuation from 1‐3 year old)
Self‐regulation

32 https://raisingchildren.net.au/preschoolers/health‐daily‐care/toileting/toilet‐training‐guide
33 https://raisingchildren.net.au/babies/breastfeeding‐bottle‐feeding‐solids/about‐breastfeeding/breastmilk‐
breastfeeding‐benefits
34 https://raisingchildren.net.au/preschoolers/nutrition‐fitness/healthy‐eating‐habits/healthy‐eating‐habits
35 https://raisingchildren.net.au/preschoolers/health‐daily‐care/dressing/how‐to‐get‐dressed
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  Children develop self‐regulation through warm and responsive relationships. They also
develop it by watching the adults around them.
  Self‐regulation starts when children are babies. It develops most in the toddler and
preschool years, but it also keeps developing right into adulthood.
  Pre‐schoolers are starting to know how to play with other children and understand what’s
expected of them. For example, a pre‐schooler might try to speak in a soft voice if you’re at
the movies.
  School‐age children are getting better at controlling their own wants and needs, imagining
others people’s perspectives and seeing both sides of a situation. This means, for example,
that they might be able to disagree with other children without having an argument36.
Tantrums
  If a child has tantrums, it might help to know that this behaviour is still very common among
children aged 18‐36 months. Hang in there – tantrums tend to lessen after children turn
four.
Habits and lying
  Lying is part of a child’s development, and it often starts around three years of age. Children
aged 4‐6 years usually lie a bit more than children of other ages.
Anxiety
  Anxiety is a normal part of children’s development, and pre‐schoolers often fear being on
their own and in the dark.
  Children may also experience separation anxiety and social anxiety and phobias37.
Imaginary friend
  It is common for children to have an imaginary friend at this age. Make‐believe mates grow
out of healthy, active imaginations, give children a great way to express their feelings, and
give children someone to practise social skills with38.
Sleep/Bedtime
  Most pre‐schoolers need 11‐13 hours of sleep a night, and some still nap during the day.
  Pre‐schoolers sometimes have sleep problems like getting out of bed, as well as nightmares
and night terrors39.
  It is a parent’s responsibility to establish a sleep schedule and minimise factors that prevent
sleep40.

36 https://raisingchildren.net.au/preschoolers/behaviour/understanding‐behaviour/self‐regulation
37 https://raisingchildren.net.au/preschoolers/health‐daily‐care
38 https://raisingchildren.net.au/preschoolers/behaviour/understanding‐behaviour/preschooler‐behaviour
39 https://raisingchildren.net.au/preschoolers/sleep/understanding‐sleep/preschooler‐sleep
40 Health Direct, ‘Sleep tips for children’, December 2017, https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/sleep‐tips‐for‐children,
accessed 1 October 2019.
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Parenting and stress
Parental Exhaustion
Parental burnout is a specific syndrome resulting from enduring exposure to chronic parenting
stress. It encompasses three dimensions: an overwhelming exhaustion related to one's parental role,
an emotional distancing from one's children and a sense of ineffectiveness in one's parental role41.
Available information indicates that this is a relatively new area of research and the impacts of
parental burnout have not been accurately measured. The research to date has mostly been
measured by self‐reporting about lived experience throughout a set period of time.
The Australian Institute of Family Studies have recently studied parenting efficacy, which is ‘a
parent's belief in their effectiveness as a parent’. This research has found a direct link between the
parents perception of ‘high parenting efficacy’ with:
1)  greatest level of community support
2)  perceived financial status as being prosperous/very comfortable
3)  high level of partner support; and
4)  enough help from family and friends42.
The research concluded:
  “The importance of local community support, financial support, family and friend support,
and marital support for parenting efficacy. Parents with greater local community support,
positive financial status, strong social network and a supportive partner reported higher
levels of parenting efficacy.
  Local community supports and resources, such as community‐based parenting services, play
an important role in building parenting efficacy and should be accessible for all parents.
Local councils could provide information about these services through newsletters and
advertisements.
  Interventions that focus on helping parents have better financial capacity and help in
relieving financial pressures for them are also important. For instance, current policies such
as paid maternity leave and family tax benefits should help parents cope with decreased
income when they need to reduce working hours to perform parenting tasks.
  An important part of support interventions can involve assisting parents to develop new
relationships with people in their social networks and to help them enlarge their social
networks by making new friends. For example, local community activities such as "street
parties" or activities at neighbourhood houses can be encouraged as parents are often able
to meet other parents who can help them to make friends and enlarge their social networks.
  Strengthening parents' partnerships is an effective aspect of parenting efficacy, and
interventions could increase marital support through developing co‐parenting awareness
and skills to better support each other. For example, postnatal parenting support groups,
parenting workshops and telephone helplines could be beneficial to parents”43.

41 Mikolajczak, M et al, ‘Consequences of parental burnout: Its specific effect on child neglect and violence, Child Abuse
and Neglect, vol. 80, June 2018, <https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29604504>, pp‐134‐145.
42 Yu, M, Parenting efficacy: How can service providers help?, Family Relationships Quarterly, No 19, Australian Institute of
Family Studies, 2011, https://aifs.gov.au/cfca/publications/family‐relationships‐quarterly‐no‐19/parenting‐efficacy‐how‐
can‐service‐providers‐help
43 Ibid.
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Financial and other impact of disabilities on family
The Australian Institute for Professional Counsellors state that:
  “Some family members, especially mothers, experience more stress and a change to their
wellbeing than families who do not have children with disabilities. Time and emotional
commitments associated with raising a child with high support needs are usual sources of
this stress. Mothers and fathers benefit significantly, both financially and emotionally, from
receiving additional informal and formal support. While access to formal support services is
crucial to parents, mothers have also described emotional support as possibly the most
helpful coping factor”44.

Multiple children (i.e. demand on parents time)
A recent study from 2018 published in the Journal of Marriage and Family, titled ‘Harried and
Unhealthy? Parenthood, Time Pressure, and Mental Health’, investigated the effects of first and
second births on time pressure and mental health and how these vary with time since birth and
parental responsibilities. It also examines whether time pressure mediates the relationship between
parenthood and mental health.
The research found that:
  Children have a stronger effect on mothers' than fathers' experiences of time pressure.
These differences are not moderated by changes in parental responsibilities or work time
following births. The increased time pressure associated with second births explains
mothers' worse mental health45.
  Researchers expected the introduction of a second and subsequent children to increase the
demand of the parents' role, while bringing less pressure and stress due to developed
parenting skills gained from their first child. However, research revealed significant time
pressure increases for both parents following the birth of their first child (with mothers
showing substantially larger time pressures than fathers). The birth of their second child
doubled time pressure for both parents, further widening the gap between mothers and
fathers46.

The impact of multiple and complex needs on a family
The Victorian Government Department of Human Services have published a document titled
‘Families with multiple and complex needs: best interests case practice model – Specialist practice
resource’, which is a practice model for professionals for working with children and families. While it
is framed in a child protection context, it offers information about the dynamics of families for
complex needs.
Some key passages from the resource about parenting stress factors:

44 The Australian institute of Counsellors, Trends and Statistics of the Contemporary Family, 2012,
https://www.aipc.net.au/articles/trends‐and‐statistics‐of‐the‐contemporary‐family/
45 Ruppanner, L et al, ‘Harried and Unhealthy? Parenthood, Time Pressure, and Mental Health, Journal of Marriage and
Family, 2018, National Council on Family Relations, https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/jomf.12531
46 Gifford, BE, ‘research reveals having a second child worsens parental stress and mental health’, Happiful, December
2018, https://happiful.com/research‐reveals‐having‐a‐second‐child‐worsens‐parental‐stress‐and‐mental‐health/
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  The main challenges for parents experiencing multiple and complex needs are the capacity
to care for their children and parent effectively.
  Parents are likely to be preoccupied by attempts to deal with and manage pressures, so they
are not able to give parenting the attention needed or to parent effectively, and their
parenting capacity becomes depleted or compromised.
  Their parenting may include disengaged, unresponsive, inappropriate, harsh, punitive or
abusive responses to children. Couple relationships may be under extreme pressure and
subsequently become conflict‐ridden and unstable, and both couples and single parents may
lack sufficient family and social supports.
  Parents’ own poor experience of parenting and absence of good parenting models to
replicate, may also affect their responses to children and parenting capacity. To make
matters more complicated, family members may be experiencing the same stressors but
they present with different reactions, behaviours and problems linked to those stressors and
linked to each other’s behaviour and problems.
  Over time, the stress, compounding difficulties and cumulative impacts mean that a family
can struggle to function, experiencing periodic crises, intensification of individual and family
relationship problems, role disintegration or family fragmentation.
  As family members become increasingly overwhelmed, the effect on individual functioning
and on family dynamics can exacerbate contexts in which family violence, substance abuse,
mental illness and child abuse occur or escalate47.

Where can parents get help?
The Better Health Channel (Victoria) suggests parents can seek help from the following sources:
  Your doctor
  Your partner
  Family members and friends
  Parentline Tel. 132 289
  Family Relationship Advice Line Tel. 1800 050 321 Monday to Friday, 8am to 8pm, Saturday,
10am to 4pm
  This way up ‐ an online Coping with Stress and an Intro to Mindfulness course developed by the
Clinical Research Unit of Anxiety and Depression (CRUfAD) at St Vincent’s Hospital, Sydney and
University of New South Wales (UNSW) Faculty of Medicine.
  Maternal and child health nurse
  Your local community health centre
  Professionals such as counsellors48.
Most state and territory health and family support agencies have this information readily available.

47Victorian Government Department of Human Services, ‘Families with multiple and complex needs: best interests case
practice model – Specialist practice resource’, 2012,
https://www.cpmanual.vic.gov.au/sites/default/files/Families%20with%20multiple%20%26%20complex%20needs%20spec
ialist%20resource%203016%20.pdf
48 Better Health Channel, ‘Parenting and Stress’, 2014,
https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/healthyliving/parenting‐and‐stress
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Standards and Regulations
The Australian New Zealand Standard AS/NZS 2088:2000 requires prams and strollers sold in
Australia comply with provisions for:
  safety restraints
  brakes
  tether straps
  safety labelling
  testing procedures. 50
The ACCC has completed a review on the mandatory safety standards for prams and strollers and is
currently preparing advice to the Minister. The mandatory standard prescribes requirements for the
performance testing, design, construction, safety warnings and labels of prams and strollers. 51
Public transport departments also offer guidelines for safety of prams and strollers whilst using
public transport, such as Kidsafe NSW, Public Transport Victoria and NSW Transport.

50 NSW Government, Fair Trading: Baby Products, [website], 2019, https://www.fairtrading.nsw.gov.au/buying‐products‐
and‐services/product‐and‐service‐safety/childrens‐products/baby‐products, accessed September 30 2019.
51 ACCC, Product Safety Australia: Prams & Strollers, [website], 2019, https://www.productsafety.gov.au/standards/prams‐
strollers, accessed September 30 2019.

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Reference List
Australian Competition and Consumers Commission, Product Safety Australia: Prams & Strollers, [website], 2019,
https://www.productsafety.gov.au/standards/prams‐strollers, accessed September 30 2019.
Better Health Channel, ‘Parenting and Stress’, 2014, https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/healthyliving/parenting‐
and‐stress
Choice, Double Trouble, [website], 2018, https://www.choice.com.au/babies‐and‐kids/baby‐transport/strollers‐and‐
tricycles/buying‐guides/double‐strollers, accessed September 30, 2019
Gifford, BE, ‘research reveals having a second child worsens parental stress and mental health’, Happiful, December 2018,
https://happiful.com/research‐reveals‐having‐a‐second‐child‐worsens‐parental‐stress‐and‐mental‐health/
Health Direct, ‘Sleep tips for children’, December 2017, https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/sleep‐tips‐for‐children, accessed
1 October 2019.
Mikolajczak, M et al, ‘Consequences of parental burnout: Its specific effect on child neglect and violence, Child Abuse and
Neglect, vol. 80, June 2018, <https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29604504>, pp‐134‐145.
Multiple Raising Children web pages – as hyperlinked in footnotes.
NSW Government, Fair Trading: Baby Products, [website], 2019, https://www.fairtrading.nsw.gov.au/buying‐products‐and‐
services/product‐and‐service‐safety/childrens‐products/baby‐products, accessed September 30 2019.
Ruppanner, L et al, ‘Harried and Unhealthy? Parenthood, Time Pressure, and Mental Health, Journal of Marriage and
Family, 2018, National Council on Family Relations, https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/jomf.12531
The Australian institute of Counsellors, Trends and Statistics of the Contemporary Family, 2012,
https://www.aipc.net.au/articles/trends‐and‐statistics‐of‐the‐contemporary‐family/
Victorian Government Department of Human Services, ‘Families with multiple and complex needs: best interests case
practice model – Specialist practice resource’, 2012,
https://www.cpmanual.vic.gov.au/sites/default/files/Families%20with%20multiple%20%26%20complex%20need
s%20specialist%20resource%203016%20.pdf
Yu, M, Parenting efficacy: How can service providers help?, Family Relationships Quarterly, No 19, Australian Institute of
Family Studies, 2011, https://aifs.gov.au/cfca/publications/family‐relationships‐quarterly‐no‐19/parenting‐
efficacy‐how‐can‐service‐providers‐help

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